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The operative document for the reverse course, developed in draft form under Kennan's aegis in September 1947, envisioned a Japan that would be "friendly to the United States," amenable to American leadership in foreign affairs, "indus-trially revived as a producer primarily of consumer's goods and secondarily of capital goods," and active in foreign trade; militarily it would be "reliant upon the U.S. for its security from external attack." The paper reserved to the United 8. Marshall's note to Acheson of 29 Jan. 1947, attached to Vincent to Acheson, 27 Jan. 1947, 740.0019 Control (Korea) file, box 3827, National Archives. 9. See especially his remarks in "Transcript of Roundtable Discussion on American Foreign Policy Toward China," U.S. State Department, 6-8 Oct. 1949 (Carrollton Press, 1977, item 316B). 10. On this lobby, see Howard Schonberger, "The Japan Lobby in American Diplomacy," Pacific Historical Review 46, no. 3 (Aug. 1977): 327-59; John G. Roberts, "The Japan Crowd' and the Zaibatsu Restoration," Japan Interpreter 12 (Summer 1979): 384-415.
1947幎9æã«ã±ãã³ã®æå°ã®äžã§èæ¡ãäœæãããããã®éã³ãŒã¹ã®å®æœææžã¯ãæ¥æ¬ããç±³åœã«å奜çãã§ãå€äº€ã«ãããç±³åœã®æå°åãåãå ¥ãããå·¥æ¥çã«ã¯äž»ã«æ¶è²»è²¡ã次ãã§è³æ¬è²¡ã®çç£åœãšããŠåŸ©èããã察å€è²¿æã«ç©æ¥µçã§ãããè»äºçã«ã¯ãå€éšããã®æ»æã«å¯Ÿããå®å šä¿éãç±³åœã«äŸåãããããšããæ§æ³ãæããŠããããã®ææžã¯ç±³åœã«çä¿ãããŠããã 8. 1947幎1æ29æ¥ä»ããŒã·ã£ã«ã®ã¢ããœã³å®ã¡ã¢ã1947幎1æ27æ¥ä»ãŽã£ã³ã»ã³ãå®ã¢ããœã³å®ã¡ã¢ã«æ·»ä»ã740.0019 管çïŒéåœïŒãã¡ã€ã«ãããã¯ã¹3827ãåœç«å ¬ææžé€šã 9. ç¹ã«ãç±³åœåœåçã1949幎10æ6ïœ8æ¥ã«éå¬ããã察äžå€äº€æ¿çã«é¢ããååäŒè°è°äºé²ãïŒãã£ãã«ãã³ã»ãã¬ã¹ã1977幎ã316Bå·ïŒã«ããã圌ã®çºèšãåç §ã®ããšã 10. ãã®ãããŒæŽ»åã«ã€ããŠã¯ããã¯ãŒãã»ã·ã§ãŒã³ããŒã¬ãŒãã¢ã¡ãªã«å€äº€ã«ãããæ¥æ¬ãããŒããå€ªå¹³æŽæŽå²è©è«ã第46巻第3å·ïŒ1977幎8æïŒã327ïœ59ããŒãžïŒãžã§ã³ã»Gã»ãããŒããããžã£ãã³ã»ã¯ã©ãŠãããšè²¡é¥åèãããžã£ãã³ã»ã€ã³ã¿ãŒããªã¿ãŒã第12å·ïŒ1979幎å€ïŒã384ïœ415ããŒãžãåç §ã
40 BRUCE CUMINGS States "a moral right to intervene" in Japan should "stooge groups" like the Japan Communist Party threaten stability. Leaving little to the imagination, it went on, "Recognizing that the former industrial and commercial leaders of Japan are the ablest leaders in the country, that they are the most stable element, that they have the strongest natural ties with the US, it should be US policy to remove obstacles to their finding their natural level in Japanese leadership."11 Thus, Kennan called for an end to the purge of war criminals and business groups who had supported them, a bilateral U.S.-Japan peace treaty to be "initi-ated in the immediate future," "minimum possible reparations," and, in general, an integration of Japan into the bipolar global structure. Later on Kennan did not shrink before etching out Japan's presumed need for an economic hinterland. In October 1949 he referred to "a terrible dilemma" for American policy: to You have the terrific problem of how then the Japanese are going to get along unless they reopen some sort of Empire toward the South. Clearly we have got achieve opening up of trade possibilities, commercial possibilities for Japan on a scale very far greater than anything Japan knew before. It is a formidable task. On the other hand, it seems to me absolutely inevitable that we must keep completely the maritime and air controls as a means. of keeping control of the situation with respect to [the] Japanese in all eventualities [it is] all the more imperative that we retain the ability to control their situation by controlling the overseas sources of supply and the naval power and air power without which it cannot become again aggressive. As if the listener might mistake his intent, he went on, "If we really in the Western world could work out controls, I suppose, adept enough and foolproof enough and cleverly enough exercised really to have power over what Japan imports in the way of oil and such other things as she has got to get from overseas, we would have veto power on what she does need in the military and industrial field."12 It was a masterful performance, elaborating in detail what the Japan Lobby figure Harry Kern meant when he said of the U.S.-Japan relationship, 'Remote control' is best.
40 ãã«ãŒã¹ã»ã«ãã³ã°ã¹ ç±³åœã¯ãæ¥æ¬å ±ç£å ã®ãããªãåå¡éå£ããå®å®ãè ããå Žåãæ¥æ¬ã«ãä»å ¥ããéåŸ³çæš©å©ããæãããšäž»åŒµããããããŠãæ³ååãæ»ãç«ãŠãäœå°ãã»ãšãã©æ®ãããããã€ãŠã®æ¥æ¬ã®ç£æ¥çããã³åæ¥çã®æå°è ãã¡ã¯ãåœå ã§æãæèœãªæå°è ã§ãããæãå®å®ããå¢åã§ãããç±³åœãšã®æã匷ãèªç¶ãªã€ãªãããæã£ãŠããããšãèªèãã圌ããæ¥æ¬ã®æå°è ãšããŠæ¬æ¥ã®å°äœãèŠåºãããšã劚ããé害ãåãé€ãããšãç±³åœã®æ¿çã§ããã¹ãã§ããããšç¶ããã11 ãã®ããã«ãã±ãã³ã¯ãæŠäºç¯çœªè ãšåœŒããæ¯æŽããŠãã財çå£äœã®ç²æž ã®çµçµãæ¥ç±³äºåœé平忡çŽã®ãæ©æçºå¹ãããå¯èœãªéãæå°éã®è³ åãããããŠäžè¬çã«èšã£ãŠãäºæ¥µåããäžçæ§é ãžã®æ¥æ¬ã®çµ±åã蚎ããããã®åŸãã±ãã³ã¯ãæ¥æ¬ãçµæžçãªåŸèå°ãå¿ èŠãšããŠãããšããåæãæç¢ºã«æã¡åºããã 1949幎10æã圌ã¯ã¢ã¡ãªã«ã®æ¿çã«ãšã£ãŠãæããããžã¬ã³ããããããšè¿°ã¹ã次ã®ããã«è¿°ã¹ãããæ¥æ¬ãåæ¹ã«åããŠäœããã®åžåœãåã³éããªãéããã©ããã£ãŠãã£ãŠãããã ããããšãããéåžžã«å€§ããªåé¡ããããŸããæããã«ãæã ã¯æ¥æ¬ã«ãšã£ãŠããããŸã§çµéšããããšã®ãªãã»ã©ã®èŠæš¡ã§è²¿æã忥ã®å¯èœæ§ãéæŸããããšãéæããŸãããããã¯å°é£ãªèª²é¡ã§ããäžæ¹ã§ããããªãäºæ ã«ãããŠãæ¥æ¬ã«å¯Ÿããæ å¢ãææ¡ãç¶ããææ®µãšããŠãæµ·äžããã³èªç©ºã®å¶å§ãå®å šã«ç¶æããªããã°ãªããªãããšã¯ãç§ã«ã¯çµ¶å¯Ÿã«é¿ããããªãããã«æãããŸããæµ·å€ã®è£çµŠæºãšæµ·è»åãèªç©ºåãå¶åŸ¡ããããšã§ãæ¥æ¬ã®æ å¢ãææ¡ããèœåãç¶æããããšããããäžå±€éèŠã«ãªããŸããããããªãã«ã¯ãæ¥æ¬ã¯åã³äŸµç¥çã«ãªãããšã¯ã§ããŸãããããŸãã§èãæãåœŒã®æå³ã誀解ããã®ã§ã¯ãªãããšèšããã°ããã«ã圌ã¯ç¶ããããããæã 西åŽè«žåœããååã«å·§åŠãã€ç¢ºå®ã«ããããŠå·§åŠã«ãæ¥æ¬ãèŒžå ¥ããç³æ²¹ãæµ·å€ããå ¥æããªããã°ãªããªããã®ä»ã®ç©è³ã«é¢ããŠæš©åãæ¡ããã ãã®çµ±å¶ãæ¬åœã«ç¢ºç«ããããšãã§ããã°ãæ¥æ¬ãè»äºãç£æ¥ã®åéã§æ¬åœã«å¿ èŠãšãããã®ã«å¯ŸããŠæåŠæš©ãæã€ããšãã§ããã ãããã12 ããã¯ãæ¥æ¬ãããŒã®ä»£è¡šã§ããããªãŒã»ã«ãŒã³ãæ¥ç±³é¢ä¿ã«ã€ããŠãé éæäœããæåã ãšè¿°ã¹ãæå³ã詳现ã«èª¬æããèŠäºãªæŒèª¬ã ã£ãã
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11. "U.S. Policy Toward a Peace Settlement with Japan," 22 Sept. 1947, RG 59, Policy Planning Staff (PPS) file, box 32, National Archives (NA). This document was the basis for National Security Council (NSC) document 13/2 of October 1948, the instrument governing the reverse course. See NSC file, box 206, Harry S. Truman Library (HST). 12. "Transcript of Roundtable Discussion." For a fine account of Japan's postwar position in the world economy, see Jon Halliday, "The Specificity of Japan's Re-integration into the World Capitalist Economy after 1945: Notes on Some Myths and Misconceptions," Rivista Internazionale di Scienze Economiche e Commerciali 28, nos. 7-8 (July Aug. 1981): 663-81. 13. Harry Kern, "American Policy Toward Japan," 1948, a privately circulated paper, in Pratt Papers, box 2, Naval War College, Newport, Rhode Island. "Remote control was in Kerr tion marks because it was George Sansom's term. quera-contrwas in Korea 2
11. ã察æ¥å平亀æžã«åããç±³åœã®æ¿çãã1947幎9æ22æ¥ãRG 59ãæ¿çç«æ¡ã¹ã¿ããïŒPPSïŒãã¡ã€ã«ãããã¯ã¹32ãåœç«å ¬ææžé€šïŒNAïŒããã®ææžã¯ã1948幎10æã®åœå®¶å®å šä¿éäŒè°ïŒNSCïŒææž13/2ïŒéã®æ¹éãèŠå®ããææžïŒã®åºç€ãšãªã£ããNSCãã¡ã€ã«ãããã¯ã¹206ãããªãŒã»Sã»ãã«ãŒãã³å³æžé€šïŒHSTïŒåç §ã 12. ãååäŒè°ã®è°äºé²ããæŠåŸã®æ¥æ¬ã®äžççµæžã«ãããç«å Žã«é¢ããåªãã解説ã«ã€ããŠã¯ããžã§ã³ã»ããªããŒèã1945幎以éã®äžçè³æ¬äž»çŸ©çµæžãžã®æ¥æ¬ã®åçµ±åã®ç¹æ®æ§ïŒããã€ãã®ç¥è©±ãšèª€è§£ã«é¢ããèŠæžããRivista Internazionale di Scienze Economiche e Commerciali 28ã第7-8å·ïŒ1981幎7-8æïŒã663-81é ãåç §ã 13. ããªãŒã»ã«ãŒã³ããå¯Ÿæ¥æ¿çãã1948幎ãç§èšåèŠ§ææžããã©ããææžãããã¯ã¹2ãæµ·è»æŠäºå€§åŠããã¥ãŒããŒããããŒãã¢ã€ã©ã³ãå·ããé éæäœã¯ã«ãŒã®çšèªã§ããžã§ãŒãžã»ãµã³ãœã ã®çšèªã§ãã£ããããéåœã§ã¯é éæäœãè¡ãããã
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UNIVERSITY of CALIFORNIA PRESS
POSTWAR JAPAN AS HISTORY
GORDON EDITO
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about-face required an end to MacArthur's purges. It meant that accused war criminals such as Kishi and Kodama would be released. It led to their recruit-ment by the CIA and the eventual restoration of powerful leaders, business car-tels, internal security forces, and political parties. "The U.S. should do what it can to encourage effective conservative leader-ship in Japan," said the Operations Coordinating Board, in a report to the White House dated October 28, 1954, and declassified fifty years later. If the conserva-tives were united, they could work together to control Japan's political life, the board said, and "to take legal measures against Communists, and to combat the neutralist, anti-American tendencies of many of the individuals in Japan's edu-cated groups." This is precisely what the CIA did from 1954 onward.
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prominent Japanese writers and intellectuals short-term visits to the United States. These official American propaganda activities are an important part of the historical record, and we applaud the series of articles by Matsui Michio and Alec Dubro in Japanese on this important subject. (See the five-part series under the general title "Panel-D-Japan: Amerika tai-Nichi senno kosaku пП zenbo" [Panel-D-Japan: The Complete Story of America's Brainwashing Operations Against Japan] in Views magazine, a Japanese monthly, starting with the November 1994 issue and running through March 1995. Topics covered include use of the actor Takakura Ken to intrude American propaganda into Japanese films, production of American-inspired propaganda films, payoffs to the NHK, invitations to professors at Kyoto and other universities to travel to the U.S. at government expense, actions to counter the popular campaigns against nuclear power and nuclear weapons in Japan, support for anti-communist writers, and support for the LDP. Also see in English Alec Dubro and David E. Kaplan, "A Question of Intelligence: Forty-five Years of the CIA in Japan," Tokyo Journal, March 1995, pp. 32-37.) Whatever one may think of these Congress-of-Culturai-Freedor type operaidas, carried out not just by the CIA but particularly by the USIS, they were a ubiquitous aspect of the Cold War. The communist side
èåãªæ¥æ¬ã®äœå®¶ãç¥è人ã«ããã¢ã¡ãªã«ãžã®çæèšªåãããããã¢ã¡ãªã«ã®å ¬åŒãããã¬ã³ã掻åã¯æŽå²èšé²ã®éèŠãªéšåãå ããŠãããæŸäºééæ°ãšã¢ã¬ãã¯ã»ãã¥ããæ°ã«ãããã®éèŠãªããŒãã«é¢ããæ¥æ¬èªã®é£èŒèšäºãé«ãè©äŸ¡ããŸãã ïŒæåèªãViewsã1994幎11æå·ãã1995幎3æå·ã«ãããŠæ²èŒãããå š5åã·ãªãŒãºãPanel-D-JapanïŒã¢ã¡ãªã«å¯Ÿæ¥æŽè³äœæŠå šè²ããåç §ããã®ã·ãªãŒãºã§ã¯ã俳åªã®é«åå¥ãå©çšããŠæ¥æ¬ã®æ ç»ã«ã¢ã¡ãªã«ã®ãããã¬ã³ããæã¡èŸŒãã ããšãã¢ã¡ãªã«é¢šã®ãããã¬ã³ãæ ç»ã®è£œäœãNHKãžã®è³è³ã京éœå€§åŠãªã©ã®ææãå ¬è²»ã§ç±³åœã«æåŸ ããããšãæ¥æ¬åœå ã®åååã»æ žå µåšå察ã®å€§è¡éåã«å¯ŸæããæŽ»åãåå ±ç£äž»çŸ©äœå®¶ãžã®æ¯æŽãèªæ°å ãžã®æ¯æŽãªã©ãåãäžããããŠããããŸããè±èªçã§ã¯ãã¢ã¬ãã¯ã»ãã¥ãããšããããã»Eã»ã«ãã©ã³ã®ãA Question of Intelligence: Forty-five Years of the CIA in JapanãïŒæ±äº¬ãžã£ãŒãã«ã1995幎3æå·ã1996幎11æã1997幎11æã1998幎11æã1999幎11æã1990幎11æã1991幎11æã1992幎11æã1993幎11æã1994幎11æã1995幎11æã1995幎11æã1996幎11æã1997幎11æã1998幎11æã1999幎11æã1999幎11æã1990 ... 32-37.) CIAã ãã§ãªãç¹ã«USISã«ãã£ãŠå®è¡ããããæåäŒè°ãããªãŒããŒã«ã®ãããªè¡çºã«ã€ããŠã©ãèããã«ãããããã¯å·æŠã®æ®éçãªåŽé¢ã§ãã£ããå ±ç£äž»çŸ©åŽã¯
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Yomiuri Shimbun (èªå£²æ°è). Conservative. First ranked in daily circulation at around 10 million per day. The Yomiuri exchanged a special contract with The Times. Affiliated with Nippon Television.
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Asahi Shimbun (ææ¥æ°è). Liberal. Second ranked in daily circulation at around 7 million copies per day. Known for being the main opposition newspaper. Affiliated with TV Asahi.
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Mainichi Shimbun (æ¯æ¥æ°è). Centre-left. Third ranked in daily circulation-around 4 million per day. Affiliated with Tokyo Broadcasting System.
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Nikkei Shimbun (æ¥æ¬çµæžæ°è). Conservative with more centre-right. Fourth ranked in daily circulation at around 3 million copies per day. Economic paper in the style of The Wall Street Journal. Affiliated with TV Tokyo.
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Sankei Shimbun (ç£çµæ°è)ã Reactionary, pro-American and anti-Chinese newspaper. Sixth ranked in daily circ, la jor at source caplesper day. Affiliated with Fuji Television.
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NHK is a public service broadcaster. The company is financed through "viewer fees," similar to the licence fee system used in the UK to fund the BBC. NHK deliberately maintains neutral reporting as a public broadcast station, even refusing to mention commodity brand names. NHK has 2 terrestrial TV channels, unlike the other TV networks (in the Tokyo region-channel 1 (NHK General TV) and channel 3 (NHK Educational TV).
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Nippon Television Network System (NNS)/Nippon News Network (NNN) headed by Nippon Television (NTV). In the Tokyo region, channel 4. Affiliated with the Yomiuri Shimbun newspaper.
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The Tokyo Broadcasting System holding company owns the Tokyo Broadcasting System (TBS) station (which is broadcast nationally) and the Japan News Network (JNN) which supplies news programming to TBS and other affiliates. In the Tokyo region, channel 6. Affiliated with how the Mainichi Shimbun newspaper.
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Fuji Network System (FNS) and the Fuji News Network (FNN) share the flagship station Fuji Television. In the Tokyo region, channel 8. Part of the Fujisankei Communications Group, a keiretsu, which also has the Sankei Shimbun newspaper.
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TV Asahi Network/All-Nippon News Network (ANN) headed by TV Asahi. Affiliated with how? the Asahi Shimbun newspaper. In the Tokyo region, channel 10.
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TV Tokyo Network (TXN) headed by TV Tokyo. Has ties with how? the Nihon Keizai Shimbun newspaper. In the Tokyo region, channel 12.
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