New World Jewry & the Inquisition ‐ Full Timeline - theofficialurban/public-notes GitHub Wiki

Timeline of Jewish Life and the Inquisition in the New World (1478-1825)

This timeline details the significant events concerning Jewish communities and the Spanish and Portuguese Inquisitions in Latin America and the Caribbean, as described in the provided sources.

13th Century:

965: The term "Marrano" (meaning "hog" or "swine") first appears in government records. By the 13th century, calling someone a Marrano was a criminal offense.

14th Century:

1369-1379: King Enrique II prohibits Jews from bestowing Christian names on their offspring.
1391: Religious persecutions instigated by Ferran Martinez and Vincent Ferrer lead many Iberian Jews to flee to North Africa.

15th Century:

1405 (approx.): Solomon Ha Levi (later Pablo de Santa Maria of Burgos), a chief rabbi, converts to Catholicism and writes "Scrutinium Scripturarum" against Judaism.
1412: Vincent Ferrer's crusade against Jews continues.
1478: Ferdinand and Isabella establish the Holy Office of the Inquisition in Spain (reinstated in 1480 after a brief withdrawal due to reported abuses).
1480 (earliest): The "Converso practice" of adopting maternal or paternal grandparent's surnames is noted.
1492: Expulsion of Jews from Spain. Approximately 100,000 Spanish Jews enter Portugal, though some 300,000 choose exile rather than conversion.
June 1494: Treaty of Tordesillas divides the New World between Spain and Portugal.
1495: Jews are present in Hispaniola (Santo Domingo and Haiti) and other Caribbean islands.
November 30, 1496: Marriage contract signed between King Manuel of Portugal and Isabella (daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella), on condition that Manuel expel the Jews.
December 4, 1496: King Manuel decrees all Jews must leave Portugal by October 1497 or face death and property confiscation. Children under 14 are forcibly converted and raised as Catholics.
March 19, 1497: Enforced baptism of Jews begins in Portugal on the first day of Passover. Many parents comply to retain their children; others commit suicide or infanticide.
May 30, 1497: King Manuel decrees New Christians are to remain undisturbed for 20 years, with no heresy proceedings against them.

16th Century:

1500: Pedro Alvares Cabral discovers Brazil. Many Jews, including illegal immigrants, come to the West Indies and proceed to Tierra Firma (mainland).
1502: King Manuel leases Terra de Santa Cruz (Brazil) to Fernao Loronha, a Jewish merchant, representing a consortium, for 20 years.
1506: King Ferdinand acquires the right to withhold papal pronouncements.
October 5, 1511: Spain considers steps against the growing number of Jews in America.
1516-1556: Reign of Charles V, after which Spain's population and wealth decline, partly due to the expulsion of Jews and Moriscos.
1519: Jewish soldiers accompany Panfilo de Narvaez to Mexico; after Narvaez's defeat, they join Cortes.
1521: Cortes completes the conquest of the Aztecs, beginning Spanish colonization in the New World. Montesquieu writes that "The Jewish religion is an old trunk that has reproduced two branches that have covered the earth; I mean Mohammedanism and Christianity. Or rather, it is a mother that has borne two daughters who have inflicted a thousand wounds upon her."
1527-1532: First census in Portugal.
October 1528: First auto da fé in Mexico; Hernando Alonso and Gonzalo de Morales are burned at the stake.
1531: Bishop Ferdinando Coutinho orders the release of a New Christian apprehended for Judaism, arguing forced conversion is invalid.
March 10, 1534: Duarte Coelho brings a substantial group of settlers, including many New Christians, to colonize Brazil.
1536: Jewish community in Mexico grows sizable enough for Bishop Zumarraga to penance 19 Jews.
1537: The Inquisition tribunal is established in Lisbon, ending the period of protection for New Christians in Portugal.
1540 (approx.): Juan Bautista Corvera is charged with suspicion of being a Jew for circumcising Indian children.
1550s: Mexico City has more Jews than Catholics, according to Francisco Fernandez del Castillo.
1555-1593: Papal policy encourages conversion of Jews.
1558: Marquardus de Susannis publishes "De Judaeis et Aliis Infidelibus," outlining papal policy on conversion.
1564: Juan Bautista Corvera is arrested again.
1569: King Philip II decrees the establishment of Holy Office tribunals in Mexico (New Spain) and Peru (New Castile). Salvador Mendez Hernandez is arrested in Nombre de Dios, Panama, as an escapee from the Seville Inquisition.
1570: New Christians in Portugal secure a papal bull halting property confiscation for those arrested by the Holy Office.
1580: Spain assumes dominion over Portugal. Many descendants of Spanish and Portuguese Jews migrate to Seville, Malaga, and other areas, some then departing for the New World. Governor of New Spain sails to Mexico with his secret Jewess wife and family.
1588: Defeat of the Spanish Armada contributes to economic depression, stimulating Jewish migration to the New World. Baltazar, Luis el Mozo's brother, circumcises himself.
1589: Gaspar, oldest son of Francisco Rodriguez de Matos, learns of his family's true Jewish faith.
1591: Inquisition visitador confines activities to Bahia, Brazil. Ambrosio Peixoto de Carvalho denounces a synagogue in the house of Heitor Antunes in Bahia. Dona Caterina Mendes is denounced for removing the sinew from beef.
December 17, 1595: Auto da fé in Lima includes 10 Jews, four of whom are relaxed. Pedro de Contreras, a Jew, dies in this auto da fé.
December 8, 1596: Luis el Mozo, his mother Francisca, and his sisters Leonor, Isabel, and Catalina are burned at the stake in Mexico City in the "largest and most grandiose" auto da fé held in the New World until that time. Diego Diaz Nieto and his father Ruy Diaz Nieto are arrested.
1596-1604: Luis Velasco serves as viceroy of Peru; Spain's international power weakens.
March 12, 1597: Report of Portuguese controlling commerce in Rio de la Plata and Tucuman indicates presence of "converted Jews" or "professing Jews."
1597-1649: Significant movement of Jews in the New World.
1599: Dutch admiral Piet Heyn unsuccessfully attempts to capture Callao, Peru.
December 10, 1600: Garci de Lucena is burned alive in Lima.

17th Century:

1601: Portuguese New Christians (Jews) pay 200,000 ducats to King Philip III for "irrevocable permission" to go to Spanish and Portuguese colonies. Marianna de Carvajal is burned at the stake.
1602: The city of David in Panama is founded by Juan Lopez de Sequeira, believed to be a Jew.
1603: Papal Bull of Pardon granted, royal approval in 1605, allowing backsliding New Christians two years to return to the Church. Friar Diogo da Asuncao is burned at the stake in Lisbon for denying Jesus' messiahship and Mary's virginity.
1605: Antonio Rodriguez Correa's death sentence is commuted at the last moment. Francisco Maldonado de Silva's father is reconciled by the Inquisition.
1605-1633: No Jews involved in Inquisition proceedings in Peru.
1606: Governor of Rio de la Plata orders the deportation of all Portuguese.
1609-1624: Alvaro Mendez resides in France and celebrates Jewish festivals.
1610: The "irrevocable permission" for New Christians to go to colonies is withdrawn. Holy Office tribunal established in Cartagena. Margarita de Rivera is born in Mexico City.
1615 (approx.): Jews from Rio de Janeiro migrate to Buenos Aires. Blas de Paz Pinto's house is used as a synagogue.
1616-1617: Thomas Trevino de Sobremonte comes to Mexico.
1618: Second Holy Office visitation in Brazil.
1618-1625: Cases arise in Buenos Aires where Franciscans provide bail for Jews.
1619: Thomas Trevino de Sobremonte's mother and brother are apprehended in Portugal.
1620: Manuel Bautista Perez arrives in Lima. King Philip III requests a tribunal in Buenos Aires due to the number of Portuguese Judaizers in Peru.
1620s: Pedro de Campos goes to Brazil to trade. Simon Osorio comes to Peru.
1622: Inquisition denunciation of a synagogue on Calle de Santo Domingo in Mexico City, claiming 500 Jews in the city. Inquisitors Francisco Verdugo and Andres Juan Gaytan write to the Inquisitor-General about the smuggling of prohibited books.
1623: Enrique Nunez de Espinosa is imprisoned in Lima for being a Jew.
1624: Bahia in Brazil is captured by the Dutch. Thomas Trevino de Sobremonte is arrested in Oaxaca. Sebastian Rodriguez has a store in Mexico.
1625: Pedro Lopez arrested in Zaragosa.
1626: Francisco Maldonado de Silva arrested.
1629: Thomas Trevino de Sobremonte marries Maria Gomez.
1630: Dutch conquest of northern Brazil. Many Jews reside in Buenos Aires.
July 17, 1630: Alvaro Mendez reconciled and sentenced to life imprisonment (dies June 2, 1631).
February 27, 1631: Private auto de fé in Lima.
1632 (approx.): Thomas Trevino de Sobremonte receives a complete pardon from the Suprema.
April 17, 1632: Impressive structure of a synagogue consecrated in Curaçao.
1634: Dutch capture Curaçao. Estates-General proclaims religious freedom for Jews and Catholics in Dutch Brazil. Mass arrests begin in Lima.
August 11, 1635: Inquisitors arrest over 100 Portuguese Jews in Lima, accusing them of a conspiracy to seize Peru.
1636: First mention of a synagogue in official Dutch Brazil documents.
February 19, 1637: Blas de Paz Pinto dies following torture in Cartagena.
1637-1644: Johan Maurits van Nassau serves as governor-general of Dutch Brazil.
1638: Two synagogues in Dutch Brazil closed by order of the Classis; later reopened under conditions. Moises Navarro purchases the right to collect taxes on sugar.
January 23, 1639: "Great Auto da Fé" in Lima; 61 Jews are involved, 12 burned at the stake, including Manuel Bautista Perez and Francisco Maldonado de Silva.
1640: Portugal breaks away from Spain.
1641: Two hundred Jews from Amsterdam, led by Rabbi Isaac Aboab and Moses Raphael de Aguilar, arrive in Brazil.
1642: Mass arrests of Jews begin in Mexico. Johan Maurits's administration reaches its apex and begins decline due to poor sugar harvests. Sebastian Rodriguez arrested in Panama.
1643-1647: Juan Cardoso's proceso occurs.
May 22, 1644: Johan Maurits departs from Brazil. Catalina Enriquez questioned by inquisitor.
December 1, 1645: Brazilian Jewry comes under the protection of the Estates-General (Patenta Onroasa).
June 1646: Unsuccessful Portuguese attempt to recapture Recife. Juana del Bosque and her aunt appear in auto.
November 29, 1646: Manuel Alvarez Prieto is tortured and names colleagues and the "Brotherhood of the Jews of Holland."
1646-1649: Autos da fé in Mexico lead to the collapse of Jewish commercial empires.
January 23, 1647: Juan Cardoso and Manuel Alvarez Arellano are reconciled in the auto.
November 17, 1647: Isaac de Castro is condemned to the stake in Lisbon.
December 15, 1647: Isaac de Castro and 34 other Jews share an auto da fé in Lisbon.
1648: Sebastian Rodriguez is reconciled in auto.
November 1648: Recife congregation minute book begins covering events until 1654.
February 6, 1649: King John IV issues the alvara, protecting New Christian property from Inquisition sequestration.
April 11, 1649: "Great Auto de Fé" in Mexico, a tragic milestone for Jews and the inauguration of an economic depression. Maria Gomez's mother, Leonor Nunez, is burned at the stake. Pedro de Campos sentenced.
1649-1659: New Christians again secure immunity for their property in Portugal.
1650: First Jewish residents, twelve Dutch families, arrive in Curaçao. Midhe Israel congregation founded in Barbados.
1651: Juan Cardoso and Manuel Alvarez Arellano board ship for Spain.
February 22, 1652: Joseph Nunez da Fonseca (David Nassi) is awarded a large tract of land in Curaçao.
1653: Manuel Alvarez Prieto, having died in his cell, is burned in effigy in the auto of April 15.
1654: Fall of Brazil (New Holland) to the Portuguese. Many Jews leave for Amsterdam, Curaçao, and New Amsterdam. Mikve Israel synagogue founded in Curaçao. Holland makes grants of immunity to Jews going to the "Wilde Cust" (Tobago).
April 20, 1655: England grants permission to the Mercado family to settle in Barbados.
1656: England reopens its doors to Jews. Synagogue built in Curaçao (replaced in 1681). Benjamin de Caseres, Henry de Caseres, and Jacob Fraso apply for permission to live and trade in Barbados.
1658: Sebastian Vaz Acevedo writes his codicil (dies shortly thereafter). Jews from Salce and Oran arrive in Guiana.
1659: Dr. Pedro de Medina Rico reports venality of inquisitors.
1660: Marked watershed in colonial Latin America and Jewish history. Jewish settlement in Tobago founded. Nova Zeelandia colony founded in Essequibo.
1661: Trade between Curaçao and Spanish Venezuela is substantial.
January 28, 1664: Manuel Enrique burned in Lima.
1665: Inquisition attitude toward Jews changes, severity of punishments decreases.
1666: Nova Zeelandia colony destroyed by the English.
May 1667: Inventory of Thorarica, Surinam, lists plantations owned by Portuguese Jews.
1668 (approx.): Spanish secretary informs Duke of Buckingham that Jamaica was colonized by Portuguese fleeing the Inquisition in 1623.
1670s (early): Jews from Brazil migrate to Curaçao and Surinam.
1671: Only 16 Jews without denization in Barbados, by belief.
1674: Haham Josiao de Pardo arrives in Curaçao.
April 7, 1674: Gaspar de Freitas de Abreu writes to Prince Regent Pedro about the interchangeable use of "Jew" and "Marrano" in Portugal.
1675: Jews in Barbados petition for exemption from taking an oath on the New Testament.
1677: Town council of Buenos Aires requests the king send ships with Negroes, workers, and farmhands.
1677-1678: E. Mendes da Costa writes notes containing cipher writing used by his ancestors.
1680: Isaac Neto called to Surinam as first spiritual leader.
1683: Jews settled and naturalized in Jamaica under an Act.
1685: Berakhah we-Shalom synagogue building erected in Paramaribo, Surinam.
1690 (approx.): Forty to fifty Ashkenazim come to Surinam. Jews live in Santa Marta.
1693: Haham Lopez arrives in Curaçao, finds communal laxity. Many Italian Jews leave Curaçao for Venezuela.
1697: Second synagogue founded in Curaçao. Antonio Vieira dies in Brazil.

18th Century:

1703: Larger "city" synagogue built in Curaçao.
August 2, 1705: Barbados House of Assembly levies a tax on Jews. Archbishop Cragnon's sermon to Jewish penitents in Lisbon.
November 6, 1707: Auto da fé includes Donna Theresa Barrera from Olinda, Pernambuco.
1712: Joseph Addison writes about Jews being instruments of international correspondence.
1713: Treaty between Spain and England permits non-Catholics on English ships to enter New World ports if they refrain from public religious services.
1716: Neve Shalom, Ashkenazi Jewish congregation, is founded in Surinam.
1720: Tucacas Jews apply to Curaçao to purchase a Sefer Torah.
1722: David Senior sent to Coro on a mission by Curaçaoan authorities.
October 10, 1723: Auto da fé in Lisbon includes Jews from Rio de Janeiro.
1726: Founding of Montevideo, coinciding with assimilation among Rio de la Plata Jews.
1729: Several Jews apprehended by Holy Office in Minas Gerais. Runaway slaves from Curaçao found refuge in Coro.
April 1732: Present imposing synagogue structure in Curaçao is consecrated.
1733: Marquis de Pombal's decree abolishes the distinction between Old and New Christians in Portugal.
January 16, 1734: Ashkenazim in Surinam form the Neve Shalom congregation.
December 21, 1736: Maria Francisca de Castro is burned for "judío judaizante."
October 17, 1739: Antonio Jose da Silva, dramatist, goes to the stake in Lisbon.
1746-1749: Altercations among Jews in Curaçao.
1750 (approx.): Ricardo Ossado lives in Valladolid, Yucatan.
1751-1777: Marquis de Pombal rules Portugal as prime minister.
1754: Father Perro Logu's letter reports signs of Jewish assemblies in Buenos Aires.
1759: Jesuits banished from Portugal and its colonies by Pombal.
1762: Jesuit appointed as first comisario in Montevideo.
1765 (approx.): Rise of hostility toward Jews in Paramaribo.
1767: Jesuits expelled from Spanish colonies by Charles III. Proposed creation of a ghetto for Jews in Paramaribo.
1768: Colonia del Sacramento (held by Portugal from 1768-1776) becomes a center for contraband traffic.
1774: Formal persecution of judaizers ends in Peru, though some pending cases remain. Rumors of a "new Jewish conspiracy" in Lima and Santiago.
1778: Don Agustin de Espinola attends a synagogue in Kingston, Jamaica, and is later arrested in Mexico.
1780: Petition for exemption from taking an oath on the New Testament for Jews in Barbados is granted.
1782: White population of Paramaribo numbers 2,000, including 615 Portuguese Jews and 430 German Jews.
1789: David de la Mota is arrested in Cartagena for stating he is a Jew but released due to Danish citizenship.
1795: Raphael Cristiano Gil Rodriguez's last will requests Jewish burial rites.

19th Century:

1810-1825: Latin American colonies achieve independence.
1821: Raphael Cristiano Gil Rodriguez freed by the new Mexican Army.
1822: Colonial period in Brazil ends with independence.
1832: Synagogue in Barbados destroyed by hurricane; congregational records lost.
1861: Antonio Rodriguez Correa's book, "How the Holy Office of Lima Converted an Aged Jew," is published.
1864: Reform community comes into being in Curaçao.
1880s: Ashkenazim begin migrating to the New World at an accelerated pace after 1890.

Cast of Characters

Aboab, Isaac (Rabbi): (d. 1693) Rabbi from Amsterdam who led a group of Jews to Brazil in 1641. He was a spiritual leader and his writings, including a poem "Zecher Rab" about the siege of Recife, were influential. He later returned to Holland.
Acosta, Juan de: Born in Pernambuco. One of the "Peruleiros" who came to Lima. Sentenced to life imprisonment in Seville in the 1639 auto da fé.
Addison, Joseph: (1672-1719) English essayist who wrote about Jews' role in global trade in 1712.
Aguilar, Moses Raphael de: Accompanied Rabbi Isaac Aboab to Brazil in 1641.
Aisenburg, Isidoro (Rabbi): Argentine-born Rabbi who discusses the legend of a vial for tears and Jewish trade in Venezuela.
Almagro: Spanish conquistador; Rodrigo Orgonos was among his men.
Alonso, Hernando: One of Cortes's conquistadors; burned at the stake in the first auto da fé in Mexico (1528).
Alvares, Luis: Clerk knowledgeable in Jewish practices, discussed them with Manuel Roiz Sanchez in 1618.
Alvarez, Antonio: Cook of the Queen of Portugal, taught Dona Caterina Mendes the practice of removing sinew from beef.
Alvarez Arellano, Manuel: Mortician for Jewish communities in Mexico, traveled between Spain, France, and New Spain. Reconciled in the 1647 auto, sentenced to jail, abjuration, sanbenito, confiscation, and exile.
Alvarez Prieto, Manuel: Arrested in Cuba and tried in Cartagena. Refused to involve other Jews, confessed he was a Jew and wished to die in the Law of Moses. Died in his cell and was burned in effigy in 1653.
Andrade Velosino, Jacob de: Born in Pernambuco, a physician and philosopher who gained fame for medical cures and wrote a polemic against Baruch Spinoza.
Antunes, Heitor: "Neo-Christian" in whose house a synagogue was located in Bahia in 1591.
Asuncao, Diogo da (Friar): Burned at the stake in Lisbon in 1603 for denying Jesus' messiahship and Mary's virginity.
Ayarragaray, Lucas: Argentine historian who wrote about Sephardic artisans, hucksters, builders, and money-lenders in Argentina.
Bado, Diego Diaz: One of the Portuguese men who created a feeling of nationalism in Venezuelans.
Bandarra, Goncalo Eanes: A 16th-century Portuguese poet-shoemaker whose writings were interpreted by New Christians as having messianic import.
Baron, Salo W.: Scholar who commented on the value of Inquisition documents for understanding thought processes of both prosecutors and victims.
Baroja, Julio Caro: Scholar who wrote about secret services resembling synagogues in Madrid, Seville, and Granada during the reigns of Philip III and Philip IV.
Barreto, Francisco (General): Portuguese General who negotiated the terms of surrender for the Dutch in Brazil in 1654, impressing Jews with his adherence to the treaty.
Barreto, Luis Gomes: World traveler who had been in Africa and Brazil. Purchased the post of "depositario general" of Cartagena, arrested, absolved, then rearrested later in life and released at 82.
Basnagc, Jacques: (1653-1723) French historian, author of a "History of the Jews."
Bataillon, Marcel: Scholar who remarked on the severity of the Inquisition indicating Spaniards needed violence to be good Christians.
Bazan, Jorge Jacinto (alias Jorge Jacinto Baca): Born in Malaga, circumcised in Marseille, married in Mexico through a Jewish marriage broker. Reconciled in 1648 and sentenced to lashes and life imprisonment in Spain; later appeared in Leghorn and Salonica.
Beck, Matthias (Governor): Governor of Curaçao who was ordered to give Jews land and resources to promote agriculture.
Beinart, Haim: Scholar who wrote about Jewish burial practices in Spain and the Talmud's views on nail clippings.
Bocanegra, Mathias de (S.J.): Jesuit who labeled Jewish customs as superstitions and served as official historian of the 1649 auto da fé in Mexico.
Bolivar, Simon: (1783-1830) South American liberator. Financially and physically supported by Jews in the battle for independence.
Borah, Woodrow: Scholar whose works describe the decimation of Indian populations in the New World.
Boxer, Charles R.: Scholar who stated the Portuguese Inquisition was more rigorous than the Spanish, and commented on Antonio Vieira and Portuguese anti-Semitism.
Brandao, Ambrosio Fernandes: Wrote "Dialogos das Grandezas de Brasil," one of the best works on Brazil.
Brandao, Catherine Soares: Informant who, after attending a Jewish wedding in Rio de Janeiro, denounced 55, and later 24, Jews.
Bueno, Efrain: Name appearing on books found in crypto-Jews' possession, indicating their publication in Amsterdam.
Burgos, Antonio: One of the three Jewish leaders in Mexico City in the 1630s who were "electors" and involved in large commercial enterprises.
Burns, Sir Alan: Commented on religious fanaticism in British colonies.
Cabral, Pedro Alvares: Discovered Brazil in 1500.
Caceres, Francisco de: Spaniard who outwardly accepted Christianity after the expulsion but continued Judaic practices. Arrested and questioned about his reasons for leaving and returning to Spain.
Caceres, Leonor de: Daughter of Catalina Carvajal de Caceres; recited a prayer at her trial.
Calderon (Inquisitor): High churchman in Peru found guilty of having sexual relations with the jail warden's daughters.
Campos, Pedro de: Born in Villaflor, Portugal. Traded in Brazil, Caracas, and Madrid before being arrested in Campeche. Fined for "extraordinary expenses of the Holy Office."
Carbia, Romulo D.: Argentine historian who reported on "perpetrators of the crimes of Protestantism, heresy, and Judaism" in Rio de la Plata.
Cardoso, Isaac: Referred to Francisco Maldonado de Silva as "the great preacher."
Cardoso, Juan (alias Gabriel Peregrino): Born in Simide, Portugal. Practiced Jew in Amsterdam, then a merchant in New Spain. Sentenced to abjuration, confiscation, jail, and exile; never arrived in Spain.
Cardoso, Sebastian: Husband of Juana Enriquez's sister. Received a lighter sentence from the Holy Office than other Jewish leaders.
Carigal, Raphael Isaac (Haham): Rabbi from Hebron who served as spiritual leader in Curaçao from 1762 to 1764, imposing strict regulations.
Carvajal, Ana (Anica de Leon): Youngest sister of Luis el Mozo; released as a child, later married a secret Jew, and was known as "the Saint." Died in an Inquisition cell in 1647; her bones were burned in 1649.
Carvajal, Baltazar (Lumbrozo): Brother of Luis el Mozo; escaped and became a physician in Venice.
Carvajal, Catalina de Caceres: Mother of Leonor de Caceres.
Carvajal, Francisca de: Sister of the governor, married to Francisco Rodriguez de Matos. Her family, except for two daughters, assumed the name Carvajal. Burned at the stake in 1596.
Carvajal, Isabel de: Sister of Luis el Mozo; burned at the stake in 1596.
Carvajal, Leonor de: Sister of Luis el Mozo; burned at the stake in 1596.
Carvajal, Luis de, el Mozo (Luis Lumbrozo): Considered the first Jewish writer in the New World. A God-intoxicated mystic, he circumcised himself at 17. Burned at the stake in Mexico City on December 8, 1596.
Carvajal, Marianna de: Sister of Luis el Mozo; declared insane in 1596 but burned at the stake in 1601.
Carvajal, Miguel (Lumbrozo): Brother of Luis el Mozo; escaped and became a chief rabbi in Salonica.
Carvajal y de la Cueva, Luis (Governor): Governor of New Spain. His wife and sister's family were secret Jews.
Cascudo, Luis de Camara: Scholar who referred to a Brazilian governess's comment about Jews praying with swaying movements.
Castro, Americo: Scholar who wrote about the Spanish Jew's loyalty to their native land's language and culture even after expulsion.
Castro, Maria Francisca de: Born in Toledo, Spain; burned in Lima in 1736 for "judío judaizante."
Castro, Pedro Fernandez de: Son-in-law of Simon Vaez Sevilla. Denied being Jewish but was circumcised.
Cerezuela, Servan de (Inquisitor): Primarily concerned with escapees from Spain entering the New World fraudulently.
Chaunu, Pierre: Scholar who emphasized the unparalleled value of Inquisition documents for understanding societal behavior.
Cheyney, Edward Potts: Scholar who wrote about Spain's decline after Charles V, partly due to expelling Jews and Moriscos.
Chichon, Conde de: Allegedly sold permission of residence to 6,000 Portuguese Judaizers for 200,000 ducats.
Cisneros, Cardinal de: Third Inquisitor-General for Castile; descendant of a Jew, promulgated basic rules for the Holy Office.
Clement VII (Pope): Issued a Bull of Grace in 1533, acknowledging the corporate conversion of Portuguese Jewry.
Coelho, Duarte de Albuquerque (Marquis de Basto): His account indicates Antonio Dias Paparrobalos guided Dutch military forces in Brazil.
Cohen, Samuel (Coheno): Dutch Jew and interpreter for the Dutch conquering expedition in Curaçao; became the first governor.
Colbert: His death led to the expulsion of Jews from Martinique under the Code Noire.
Columbus, Christopher: Navigator on whose first voyage at least six Jews sailed. Queen Isabella granted him dominion where no Holy Office branch was to be established.
Contreras (Padre): Accompanied Luis el Mozo to the stake, trying to persuade him to convert.
Cooke, Shelburne: Scholar whose works describe the decimation of Indian populations in the New World.
Correa, Isabel: Hostess of "Fulano" Paez in Mexico.
Correa, Antonio Rodriguez: Peddler in Peru accused of Jewish practices. Sentenced to the stake in 1605, but commuted to prison and sanbenito; later known as the Venerable Antonio de San Pedro.
Corvera, Juan Bautista: Writer prior to Luis el Mozo; suspected of being a Jew for circumcising Indian children.
Costa, E. Mendes da: Wrote notes in 1677-1678 containing types of cipher writing used by his ancestors for Jewish correspondence.
Costa, Jeronimo Nunes da (Mosheh Curiel): Prominent Amsterdam Jew and financier, brother of Lope Ramirez (Daniel Curiel), who helped Antonio Vieira.
Coutinho, Ferdinando (Bishop): Opposed forced baptism in Portugal in 1497, stating it lacked essence.
Cromwell, Oliver: English Protector who allowed Jews to reopen their doors to England in 1656.
Curiel, Daniel (Lope Ramirez): Prominent Amsterdam Jew and financier, brother of Jeronimo Nunes da Costa (Mosheh Curiel), who helped Antonio Vieira.
Daniel (Prophet): Referenced in a prayer recited by Leonor de Caceres.
de la Mota, David: Born in Spain, circumcised in St. Eustatius. Arrested in Cartagena for publicly stating he was a Jew, but released due to Danish citizenship.
de Leon, Ana (Anica Carvajal): See Carvajal, Ana.
de Lima family: Influential, wealthy, and highly cultured Sephardic family intermarried with others in South America.
de Silva, Antonio Jose: (1705-1739) Brazilian playwright and poet of Jewish origin; burned at the stake in 1739.
de Silva, Dom Pedro: Deputy of the Portuguese Inquisition who tried Isaac de Castro.
de Sousa, Joa Dique: Sugar mill owner in Rio whose daughter, Donna Ventura Isabel Dique, testified against her brothers and was convicted as a judaizer.
de Souza, Thome: Wrote that an army would be required to maintain the Holy Office in Brazil.
De Susannis, Marquardus: Author of "De Judaeis et Aliis Infidelibus" (1558), outlining papal policy on conversion.
Delgado, Joao Pinto: Author of an elegy on Isaac de Castro Tartas.
Diaz, Manuel: Husband of Isabel Rodriguez; merchant in Mexico City, born in Fondon, Portugal; burned at the stake in 1596.
Diaz Enriquez, Manuel: Had letters from Holland.
Diaz, Luis: Organiser of the first Jewish community in Barbados.
Diaz Nieto, Diego: Son of Ruy Diaz Nieto. Arrested in Mexico in 1596, circumcised, educated in Ferrara. His testimony contains the "Jewish Oath."
Diaz Nieto, Ruy: Father of Diego Diaz Nieto. Came to Mexico from Italy via Spain. Very orthodox, observed dietary laws in prison.
Diez Navarro, Luis: Author of an article quoted by Rosita Katinka regarding Jamaican Jews' trade with Costa Rica.
Dique, Donna Ventura Isabel: Nun convicted as a judaizer who testified against her brothers.
Dominguez Ortiz, Antonio: Scholar who reported on the term "marrano" in government records.
Driver, S. R.: English Bible commentator who wrote about the practice of placing food in graves for the dead.
Durant, Will: Historian who provided the purchasing power equivalent of a florin in 1960.
Dutton, Sir Richard: Governor of Barbados who provided answers to inquiries about the island's population and religions.
Emmanuel, I. S.: Scholar who claims Tzur Yisroel regulations were not signed by Ashkenazim, and detailed Jewish communities in the Netherlands Antilles.
Enrique II (King of Castile): (1369-1379) Prohibited Jews from bestowing Christian names on their offspring.
Enrique, Manuel: Portuguese Jew burned in Lima in 1664.
Enriquez, Blanca: Mother-in-law of Simon Vaez Sevilla, endured Inquisition torture in Seville without implicating Jews, known for her knowledge of Judaism. Taught her daughter a prayer for headaches.
Enriquez, Catalina: Daughter of Juana Enriquez and Simon Vaez; burned at the stake in 1596.
Enriquez, Juana: Wife of Simon Vaez Sevilla, daughter of Antonio Arias Maldonado and Blanca Enriquez. Known for her piety and making chocolate drink. Nicknamed "La Gorda" (the fat one) by fellow prisoners.
Enriquez, Micaela: Her proceso contains reports of Jewish life in Mexico City.
Enriquez, Rafaela: Sister of Juana Enriquez; had an illicit affair with Manuel Alvarez Arellano.
Espinola, Don Agustin de: Merchant in Mexico arrested for attending a synagogue in Jamaica.
Esther (Queen): Biblical figure whose prayer had special meaning for New World Jews.
Estrugo, Jose M.: Author of "Los Sefarditas."
Eusebius of Alexandria: Claimed the devil referred to Jews as "his old friends" and synagogues as "homes of idolatry and devils."
Fernandez, Manuel: One of the Portuguese men who created a feeling of nationalism in Venezuelans.
Ferrer, Vincent: (d. 1419) Dominican friar whose crusades against Jews led to persecutions in 1391 and 1412.
Fonesca, Manuel de: World traveler who attended synagogues in Italy and France.
Fonseca, Antonio de: Had five brothers residing in the Canary Islands, Pernambuco, Lisbon, and France.
Fonseca, Antonio de (Padre): Wrote a book published in 1692 mentioning Antonio Rodriguez Correa's miracles.
Fonseca, Antonio Dias Paparrobalos: Served as a guide for Dutch military forces in Brazil in 1630.
Fonseca, Estebande Ares (Captain): Reported to the Suprema that Amsterdam Jews were working against Spain and corresponding with spies in the New World.
Fonseca, Joseph Nunez da (alias David Nassi): Leader of a group of Jews from Brazil who settled in Curaçao in 1650.
Fonseca, David Raphael Lopez de: Cantor in Curaçao, one of the original religious leaders before a rabbi arrived.
Fonseca, Francisco de: His proceso reveals how food with pork was kept separate for Christian guests.
Frank, Jacob: Self-proclaimed Messiah in the 18th century who caused disillusionment among Jews.
Fraso, Jacob: Applied to the king for permission to live and trade in Barbados in 1661.
Freitas de Abreu, Gaspar de: Wrote a letter to Prince Regent Pedro in 1674 stating that only the Portuguese use "Jew" or "Marrano" interchangeably.
Friedlander, Gunther: Scholar who reported on the occupations of Jews penanced in Lima.
Garcia, Lucia: Author of "Los Judios en America," criticized for anti-Semitism.
Gama, Gaspar de: Pilot with Pedro Alvares Cabral; legend states he was a Polish Jew who converted to Christianity.
Gama, Vasco de: Portuguese explorer.
Gaytan, Andres Juan (Inquisitor): Wrote to the Inquisitor-General about the smuggling of prohibited books into the colonies.
Gil Rodriguez, Raphael Cristiano: Franciscan monk revealed to be a Jew. Requested Jewish burial rites in his will, sentenced to be burned, then to life imprisonment, and freed in 1821.
Glaser, Edward: Scholar who wrote on sermons at Portuguese autos da fé, using "Judaizers," "Crypto-Jew," and "Neo-Christian" synonymously.
Glick, Thomas F.: Scholar who described cultural disintegration and assimilation in crypto-Judaism.
Gomez, Maria: Wife of Thomas Trevino de Sobremonte; Orthodox Jewish woman who adhered to strict kashrut.
Gomez, Pedro de Acosta: One of the Portuguese men who created a feeling of nationalism in Venezuelans.
Gomez Reinal, Pedro: Granted exclusive right to import slaves into colonies, with a clause for two Portuguese to be in charge of sales.
Gonzalez Obregon, Luis: Scholar who added background about conditions in Mexico in the early 1640s and the "Portuguese conspiracy."
Gottheil, Richard: Scholar who related the early history of Jewish settlement in Surinam.
Graetz, Heinrich: (1817-1891) Jewish historian.
Grandon, Alejandro Fuenzalida: Chilean student of sociology and philosophy, noted Jewish "fondness for commerce and profit."
Greenleaf, Richard E.: Historian who noted the illegal immigration of Jews in the 16th century and the community's growth.
Gregory the Great (Pope): Believed total equality for Jews would lead to abandonment of Judaism.
Guijo, Gregorio de: Author of contemporary diaries, amazed to see Juana Enriquez and Simon Vaez in the 1649 auto da fé.
Gutierrez de Toledo, Miguel (Rabbi): Supposedly wrote about Jewish customs, referenced by Mathias de Bocanegra.
Halevi, Solomon (Pablo de Santa Maria of Burgos): Chief rabbi who converted to Catholicism and wrote polemics against Judaism. His book inadvertently led Francisco Maldonado de Silva to Judaism.
Hanke, Lewis: Scholar who commented on the relationship between Peru and Brazil in the colonial period and the naming of Copacabana.
Herculano, Alexandre: Author of "History of the Origin and Establishment of the Inquisition in Portugal," believed tolerance would be fatal to Judaism.
Hernandez, Salvador Mendez: See Mendez Hernandez, Salvador.
Herring, Hubert: Scholar who wrote about the elusive but substantial differences between Portuguese and Spanish psyches.
Herskovits, Melville J.: Scholar who discussed the definition of "Jew."
Heyn, Piet (Admiral): Great Dutch admiral who captured Bahia in 1624.
Hilfman, P. A.: Scholar who supplied details about names and rabbis in the Dutch Portuguese congregation in Surinam.
Hill, Richard: Scholar who tells of Jamaica being colonized by the Portuguese fleeing the Inquisition.
Hoberman, Louisa S.: Scholar who wrote about New Christians' influence in commerce in the 17th century.
Holman, David: Author who discussed "Portuguese" being synonymous with "Jew."
Huger, Thomas: Author.
Hurwitz, Samuel J. and Edith I.: Authors of "The New World Sets an Example for the Old."
Isaacs, Jorge: Latin American writer whose father was Jewish but who was baptized.
Isabella (Queen of Castile): See Ferdinand and Isabella.
Iturribarria, Jorge Fernando: Director of "Benito Juarez" University of Oaxaca, who confirmed the existence of a "Jewish Street" in Oaxaca.
Jackson, Melvin H.: Scholar who wrote about the spread of Jews through the West Indies and their commercial network.
Jan de Illan: Original leader of the small Jewish group in Curaçao, acquired agricultural skills in Brazil.
Jimenez Rueda, Julio: Director of the Mexican National Archives, studied Inquisition procesos.
Johan Maurits van Nassau: Governor-general of Dutch Brazil (1637-1644), promoted religious tolerance for Jews and Catholics.
John II (King of Portugal): (1481-1495) Permitted Spanish Jews to enter his kingdom upon payment, later ordered their children to be forcibly converted.
John III (King of Portugal): Sought establishment of the Holy Office in his realm.
John IV (King of Portugal): Strongly supported Antonio Vieira's plan for the Brazil Company.
Josephus, Flavius: (1st Century C.E.) Historian, author of "Bellum Judaicum" (Jewish War).
Judith: Biblical figure whose fast was observed by Jews.
Juarez, Ana: Wife of Juan Mendez Villaviciosa, divorced him to marry Francisco Lopez de Fonseca.
Juarez, Blanca: Wife of Jorge Jacinto Bazan.
Juan de Manozca (Inquisitor): Transferred from Cartagena to Lima.
Juan Lopez de Sequeira: Founder of the city of David, Panama, believed to be a Jew.
Juan Nunes: Known as "the Rabbi of the Law of the Jews in Pernambuco" and treasurer of the emoga (synagogue).
Juane Mendes: Known to have "the funds of the Jews" in Olinda, Brazil.
Justa Mendez: See Mendez, Justa.
Katinka, Rosita: Scholar who quoted Luis Diez Navarro on Jamaican Jewish trade with Costa Rica.
Katz, Jacob: Scholar who outlined the Christian and Jewish positions on biblical Israel.
Kayserling, Meyer: Rabbi-historian who wrote about the secret Jews' tenacity in adhering to their faith.
Keith, Henry H.: Scholar who reported more Portuguese entered Spanish West Indies illegally than legally until 1640.
Kellenbenz, Hermann: Scholar who disclosed information about commercial relationships among Jewish communities and discussed "clans" as Sephardi organization forms.
Kertzer, Morris N.: Rabbi who wrote about the difficulty of defining a Jew.
Kirshner, Alan M.: Scholar who noted ethnic and marginal groups are generally overlooked by historians.
Kobler, Franz: Author who defined "Marrano."
Kohler, Max J.: Scholar who discussed Jewish activity in American colonial commerce.
Kohut, George Alexander: Scholar who reported on Jews from Rio de Janeiro in Lisbon autos da fé.
Kolchan, Lionel: Scholar who clarified Maimonides' reference to history.
Lagarto, Jacob: Haham of the Jewish community of Tamarica, Brazil; wrote "Tienda de Jacob" and "Ohel Jacob."
Lasnier (Monsieur): French diplomatic agent in Lisbon who attempted to aid Isaac de Castro.
Lea, Henry C.: Author of "The Inquisition in the Spanish Dependencies" and "A History of the Inquisition in Spain." Believed full religious liberty would have led to Jewish assimilation.
Leah: Biblical matriarch, invoked in blessings for females.
Leite, Serafim: Scholar who located a synagogue in Bahia.
Leon, Ana de: See Carvajal, Ana.
Leonor de Caceres: See Caceres, Leonor de.
Leonor Martinez: Mother of Thomas Trevino de Sobremonte; apprehended and tortured by the Holy Office in Portugal.
Leonor Nunez: Mother of Maria Gomez; a devout Jewess who taught her daughter Jewish prayers and slaughtered chickens ritually.
Levi, Tribe of: The biblical priestly class, to which Gaspar Vaez Sevilla belonged.
Lewin, Boleslao: Argentinian writer and paleographer who wrote about "New Christians, Marranos, or secret Jews" guarding Jewish rites.
Liebman, Seymour B.: Author of "New World Jewry, 1493-1825: Requiem for the Forgotten."
Lima, Manuel Oliveira de: Historian quoted by Wiznitzer on Jews being the best economic element.
Lindo, Hugo: Of El Salvador, Christian with a Jewish parent.
Lipiner, Elias: Scholar whose work is based on studies of the Holy Office in Portugal as it pertained to Brazil.
Logu, Father Perro: Wrote a letter in 1754 reporting signs of Jewish assemblies in Buenos Aires.
Lopez, Pedro: Born in Castelo Branco. His mother and aunt were penanced by the Lisbon Inquisition.
Lopez de Fonseca, Francisco: New arrival from Spain, known for his religiosity, who Ana Juarez divorced her husband to marry.
Lopez de Fonseca, David Raphael: Cantor and religious leader in Curaçao.
Lopez de Sequeira, Juan: Founded the city of David, Panama, believed to be a Jew.
Loronha, Fernao (Fernando de Noronha): Jewish merchant who leased Terra de Santa Cruz (Brazil) in 1502.
Luther: (1483-1546) German theologian, initially liberal but later an intolerant persecutor.
Machain, Lafuente: Scholar who claimed Porto Belo, Cartagena, and Antioquia became centers for large groups of "hebreas."
Mahamad: Communal executive board of Sephardi congregations.
Maimonides (Moses ben Maimon): (1135/8-1204) Medieval Jewish philosopher, cited for his view on history.
Maldonado, Antonio Arias: Father of Juana Enriquez, had family and connections in Seville.
Maldonado de Silva, Francisco: Surgeon from Tucuman, learned of his Jewish faith after reading "Scrutinium Scripturarum." Circumcised himself and changed his name to Eli Nazereno. Burned at the stake in 1639.
Malinche, La (Doña Marina): Indian princess who aided Cortes, used as a code name for "turncoat" or "traitor" by Marranos.
Malkiel, Yaacov: Scholar who states the original meaning of "marrano" is linguistically unrelated to its later meaning.
Manuel (King of Portugal): See John II.
Martinez, Ferran: (d. 1391) Archdeacon of Ecija, whose crusade against Jews instigated persecutions in 1391.
Martinez, Maximino: Author of "Las Plantas Medicinales de Mexico."
Mazarin: Cardinal and chief minister of France, corresponded with Monsieur Lasnier about Isaac de Castro.
McClaskey, Josephine Yocum: Scholar who wrote about the venality of inquisitors and the "Great Conspiracy" in Mexico.
Mederos, Domingo de: One of the Portuguese men who created a feeling of nationalism in Venezuelans.
Medina, Jose Toribio: Chilean historian, published works on the Inquisition in Lima, Mexico, and Chile, and on the "Great Conspiracy" in Peru.
Medina Rico, Pedro de (Dr.): "Visitador" for the Suprema, reported on the venality of inquisitors in the New World.
Meijer, J. (Dr.): Leading intellectual in Surinam, author of "Pioneers of Pauroma."
Melo, David Abenter: Reported that Inquisition cells were "the school where one was taught the knowledge of God."
Mendes, Joane: Known to have "the funds of the Jews" in Olinda, Brazil.
Mendes, Justa: One of the "Women of Valor," mother of Leonor Nunez. Her refusal to kiss the cross at her deathbed in 1649 is noted.
Mendes, Dona Caterina: Denounced in Brazil in 1591 for removing sinew from beef.
Mendez, Alvaro: From Davera, Portugal. Had a store in Pisco, Peru. Reconciled and sentenced to life imprisonment, died in 1631.
Mendez, Pereira: Panamanian publicist, Christian with a Jewish parent.
Mendez Villaviciosa, Juan: Professional mourner for Simon Vaez's community, divorced by his wife on grounds of impotence.
Mercado, Abraham (Dr.): Physician who came to Barbados in 1655 and perfected the "engenho" (sugar plantation and mill).
Mercado, David-Raphael (alias George Nunes): Son of Dr. Abraham Mercado, talent for engineering, perfected the "engenho" in Barbados, largest taxpayer in 1679.
Mercado, Isaac: Son of Dr. Abraham Mercado.
Merrill, Gordon: Scholar who distinguishes between Spanish and Portuguese Jews and their characteristics.
Moises: See Moses.
Molko, Solomon: (1501-1532) Crypto-Jew born in Portugal.
Montesquieu, Charles Louis de Secondat, Baron de la Brede et de: (1689-1755) French philosopher, author of "Persian Letters" (1721) where he characterized the Jewish religion.
Montesinos, Fernando: Author of the "Relacion" of the 1639 auto in Peru.
Montefiore, David Castillo: Financed Simon Bolivar.
Moore, Kenneth: Scholar who wrote about the Inquisition as an institution of cultural purity and the persistence of Jews in inhospitable areas.
Moore, John Preston: Scholar.
Morales, Antonio (Dr.): Uncle of Manuel Morales, physician.
Morales, Diego de: Brother of Gonzalo de Morales; reconciled and ordered exiled to Spain in the 1528 auto da fé.
Morales, Gonzalo de: Burned at the stake in the first auto da fé in Mexico (1528).
Morales, Manuel (Dr.): Physician who instigated Luis el Mozo's learning of Judaism and translated Deuteronomy for an older Jew.
Morales Padron (Dr.): Professor of American history at the University of Sevilla, agreed with Alberto Osorio O.'s theory that Juan Lopez de Sequeira was Jewish.
Moron, Antonio: Husband of Dona Mayor de Luna.
Moses: Biblical patriarch, giver of the Law.
Moyen, Don Francisco: Born in Paris, musician, merchant, traveled widely. Arrested for heretical statements, found guilty of "judaismo."
Naba (Father): Priest who Gaspar de Robles believed saved his life and convinced him to inform the Holy Office.
Nassi, David (Joseph Nunez da Fonseca): Leader of the first Jewish colony in Surinam (Joode Savaane).
Navarro, Luis Diez: See Diez Navarro, Luis.
Navarro, Moises: Purchased the right to collect taxes on sugar in Pernambuco in 1638.
Nehama, Joseph: Author of "Histoire des Israelites de Salonique."
Neto, Isaac: First spiritual leader called to Surinam in 1680.
Neuman, Abraham A.: Scholar who noted the Spanish Decree of Expulsion came "midway between medievalism and modernism."
Nevins, Allan: Author of the preface to "The Enlightened."
Nieto, Diego Diaz: See Diaz Nieto, Diego.
Nieto, Ruy Diaz: See Diaz Nieto, Ruy.
Noronha, Fernao (Fernando de Noronha): See Loronha, Fernao.
Nunes, Joao: Known as "the Rabbi of the Law of the Jews in Pernambuco" and treasurer of the synagogue (emoga).
Nunes, George (David-Raphael Mercado): See Mercado, David-Raphael.
Nunez, Leonor: See Leonor Nunez.
Ocana, Diego de: Reconciled and ordered exiled to Spain in the 1528 auto da fé; he returned to Spain.
O'Higgins, Bernardo: (1778-1842) South American liberator.
Oliveira de Lima, Manuel: Historian.
Orgonos, Rodrigo: One of several Portuguese New Christians among Almagro's conquistadors.
Ortiz, Antonio Dominguez: Scholar who reported that calling a person a marrano was a criminal offense.
Ossado, Ricardo (alias el Judio): Author of "La Flora Yucateca," whose Jewish identity is questioned.
Osorio O., Alberto (Professor Dr.): Panamanian scholar who concluded Juan Lopez de Sequeira was a Jew.
Osorio, Bento (alias David Osorio): Allegedly a Jew "in secret with Holland" who gave money to the West India Company.
Osorio, Simon (alias Simon Rodriguez, Francisco de Caceres): Administered "obrajes" (sweatshops) in Peru, invested in "Compania de Olanda." Confessed and reconciled in the 1639 auto.
Pacheco, Juan: Imprisoned in Mexico from 1643 to 1650. Defended Pedro Tinoco, was sentenced to lashes, abjuration, and galleys; did not survive.
Palafox, Juan de (Bishop): Bishop of Puebla, had battles with the Marquis de Villena in Mexico.
Palacio, Vicente Riva: Scholar familiar with Mexican Inquisition records, wrote about the "complicidad de los portugueses."
Palma, Ricardo: Author of "Anales de la Inquisición de Lima," gave a version of the Peruvian conspiracy.
Paramo, Ludovici de: Author of an account of the 1596 auto da fé.
Pardo, Abraham David: Listed as the first rabbi of the Dutch Portuguese congregation in Surinam (1642).
Pardo, David: Great-grandson of Abraham David Pardo, dedicated the synagogue building in Surinam in 1685.
Pardo, Josiao de (Haham): Rabbi who arrived in Curaçao in 1674.
Parkes, James: Anglican historian-minister who quoted Paul on the promises belonging to the Church.
Parsons, James J.: Scholar.
Patai, Raphael: Scholar who noted the myriad variations in Jewish ritual and nondogmatic beliefs.
Paz Pinto, Blas de: "Beloved and esteemed" man in Cartagena, confessed to being a Jew under torture and died eight days later.
Pedro I (King of Portugal): Prince Regent.
Peixoto de Carvalho, Ambrosio: Denounced a synagogue in Bahia in 1591.
Pelliza Tovar: Famed Aragonese chronicler quoted by Ricardo Palma.
Pereira, Ines: Niece of Thomas Trevino, bore a child in Inquisition cells, the focus of Jewish hopes for the Messiah.
Perez, Manuel Bautista: One of the wealthiest and most cultured Jews in the New World. Spiritual leader of the Lima Jewish community. Burned at the stake in 1639.
Perez de Herrera (or Pereira), Christoval: One of 110 prisoners in the "conspiracy" beginning in April 1635.
Philip II (King of Spain): Decreed the establishment of Holy Office tribunals in New Spain and New Castile.
Philip III (King of Spain): Granted New Christians permission to go to Spanish and Portuguese colonies, later withdrew it.
Philip IV (King of Spain): Reigned during a period when secret services were conducted in Spain. Informed by the Council of Portugal about the Dutch intention to capture silver in Peru.
Picasso, Casa de: Private home rented by inquisitors to house prisoners during mass arrests.
Picon-Salas, Mariano: Characterized Spanish Christians in the early days of the New World.
Pina, David Sarfaty de (Rabbi): Rabbi in Barbados from an Italian family.
Pinelo, Antonio Leon de: Wrote that residents of Rio de la Plata "must engage in commerce."
Pino, Benjamin de: Purchased a tax-collecting region in Brazil for 4,300 florins.
Pizarro, Francisco: Conquered the west coast of South America.
Pombal, Marquis de: (1699-1782) Portuguese prime minister who abolished distinctions between Old and New Christians and the Holy Office.
Prieto, Manuel Alvarez: See Alvarez Prieto, Manuel.
Proodian, Lucia Garcia de: See Garcia, Lucia.
Rachel: Biblical matriarch, invoked in blessings for females.
Ramirez, Lope (Daniel Curiel): See Curiel, Daniel.
Rebecca: Biblical matriarch, invoked in blessings for females.
Reinal, Pedro Gomez: See Gomez Reinal, Pedro.
Revah, I. S.: Scholar who wrote about Portuguese Marranos and the Inquisition in the 16th century.
Ricard, Robert: Scholar who stated that tradesmen dominated the occupations of "Portuguese Jews."
Richelieu, Cardinal: French statesman whose dealings with the Portuguese fomented revolt in Evora.
Rico, Dr. Pedro de Medina: See Medina Rico, Pedro de.
Rivera, Margarita: Informed the inquisitors about Thomas Trevino de Sobremonte and Antonio Vaez, leading to their arrest. Known as a "dogmatista" who reconverted many to Judaism.
Robles, Gaspar de: Acted as an informer against several important Jews in Mexico City, including his own aunts and uncles.
Rodriguez, Antonio: Peddler whose trial showed existence of Jewish rites and customs in Peru before the 17th century.
Rodriguez, Francisco: Brother of Simon Vaez Sevilla, liaison between Simon and Madrid authorities.
Rodriguez, Raphael Cristiano Gil: See Gil Rodriguez, Raphael Cristiano.
Rodriguez, Sebastian: Born in Lisbon, traveled widely, attended a synagogue in Panama. Reconciled in 1648 auto.
Rodriguez, Sebastian: Born in Famalicaon, Portugal. Parents were Jews, he was circumcised. Spoke many languages.
Rodriguez Correa, Antonio: See Correa, Antonio Rodriguez.
Rodriguez de Matos, Francisco: Husband of Francisca de Carvajal.
Rodriguez Estela, Juan: Fled from prison in Lisbon to Brazil, then to Buenos Aires. Arrested in Tucuman and exiled.
Rodriguez Juarez, Juan: Married "in the Jewish manner."
Rodriguez Messa, Juan: Convicted in Cartagena of being "judío judaizante," his house was a synagogue.
Rodriguez Tabara, Jorge: Considered "a great Jew," stood on bricks while leading prayer.
Rodriguez y Avila: Witness in Sebastian Rodriguez's proceso, testified about secret Jewish recognition gestures.
Rojas, Agustine: Husband of Leonor Baez, who "hung himself in the cells."
Roth, Cecil: Scholar who reported on Jorge Jacinto Bazan's and Pedro Fernandez de Castro's travels.
Rubio Mane, J. Ignacio: Former director of the Mexico National Archives.
San Martin, Jose de: (1778-1850) South American liberator.
Sanchez, Manuel Roiz: Planter denounced in 1618 for showing enthusiasm for information about Jewish practices.
Santa Maria, Pablo de (Solomon Ha Levi): See Halevi, Solomon.
Santayana, George: (1863-1952) Philosopher who wrote that a people who forgets its history is doomed to repeat it.
Sara, Antonio Jose: Scholar who denied the classification "Jew" to those convicted by the Holy Office as Jews.
Sarah: Biblical matriarch, invoked in blessings for females.
Saul: See Paul (Apostle).
Sauceda, Pedro de Silva: See Silva Sauceda, Pedro de.
Schachter, Solomon: Scholar who stated Solomon Molko was a crypto-Jew.
Schechter, Solomon: Scholar.
Schumbergk, Robert: Author.
Schwartz, Samuel: Discovered the secret Jews of Belmonte in 1917.
Schwartz, Stuart B.: Scholar.
Scott, John (Major): English major who destroyed the Nova Zeelandia colony in 1666.
Sebastian Vaz Acevedo: One of the three Jewish leaders in Mexico City in the 1630s; head of an infantry company. His property was sequestered, but he was reconciled and fined.
Senior, David: Jew sent by Curaçaoan authorities to Coro on a quasi-political mission in 1722.
Senior family: Important trading group in Curaçao with relatives in Venice and Salonica.
Sharot, Stephen: Scholar who wrote about religious differences between Jews and non-Jewish neighbors.
Shepard, Sanford (Professor): Translated a prayer found in Juana Tinoco's proceso.
Sicroff, Albert A.: Scholar who derided B. Netanyahu's claim that Marrano Judaism was a myth.
Silva, Antonio Jose da: See de Silva, Antonio Jose da.
Silva, Dom Pedro de: See de Silva, Dom Pedro.
Simon, Diego Lopez: Miner from Rio de Janeiro; executed in the Lisbon auto da fé of 1723.
Simon Vaez Sevilla: One of the wealthiest men in New Spain, Jewish leader in Mexico City. His property was sequestered, leading to bankruptcy. Nicknamed "El Burro Grande" (the great burro) by fellow prisoners.
Sixtus IV (Pope): (1471-1484) Granted Ferdinand and Isabella permission to establish the Holy Office, later withdrew it.
Skolnick, Bruce: Scholar who commented on the lack of emphasis on Portugal and Brazil in Latin American history.
Sluiter, Engel: Scholar who reported on Dutch-Spanish rivalry in the Caribbean and the Dutch West India Company.
Smith, David Grant: Scholar who warned against generalizing about Old or New Christians in Portuguese trade.
Smith, Preserved: Scholar who wrote that the Catholic Church asserted freedom of conscience was "madness."
Sokolow, Nahum: Scholar who wrote about Sabbatai Zevi's impact on Marrano resistance to conversion.
Spinoza, Baruch: (1632-1677) Dutch philosopher.
Stow, Kenneth R.: Scholar who described papal Jewry policy in the 16th century.
Stuyvesant, Peter: Governor of Curaçao who left to become governor of New Amsterdam (later New York); known for his anti-Semitism.
Susannis, Marquardus de: See De Susannis, Marquardus.
Swirsky, S.: Rabbi who commented on the Talmud's views on dying with face towards the wall.
Tarazao, Samuel: Teacher who came to Brazil with Rabbi Isaac Aboab.
Tejado Fernandez, Manuel: Scholar who argued Jews came to the New World exclusively for wealth.
Teixeira, Bento (Bento Teixeira Pinto): Author of "Prosopopeia," the first poem written in Brazil, condemned to life imprisonment by the Inquisition.
Teixeira, Rui: His home in Brazil was used as a synagogue.
Temple, Ellen Dunbar (Dr.): Authored articles on salvaged Inquisition papers in Peru.
Theresa Maria de Jesus: Maiden, "more than half a New Christian"; sentenced to sanbenito and prison in Brazil.
Tinoco, Pedro: His study on Quipur was defended by Juan Pacheco.
Titus: Roman Emperor who exiled 50,000 Jews from Judea to Sefarad in 70 C.E.
Toledo, Miguel Gutierrez de: See Gutierrez de Toledo, Miguel.
Torquemada, Tomas de: (1420-1498) First Inquisitor General in Spain, Ferdinand and Isabella's confessor.
Toro, Alfonso: Scholar who wrote about Juan Bautista Corvera.
Touro, Jacob: Wealthy plantation owner and communal leader in Surinam and Newport, Rhode Island.
Tovar, Pelliza: See Pelliza Tovar.
Trachtenberg, Joshua: Author of "Jewish Magic and Superstition" and "The Devil and the Jews."
Trajo, Licenciado: Wrote a 17th-century letter to the Holy Office in Lima about Jews fleeing from the Inquisition.
Trevino de Sobremonte, Thomas de: Epic figure, adventurer, rancher, and rich merchant in Oaxaca. Circumcised himself. Imprisoned and then burned at the stake in 1649. His trial is considered one of the most important relating to Jews in the 17th century.
Ullao, Gutierrez de: Viceroy of Peru in 1597.
Vaez, Antonio: Cellmate of Thomas Trevino de Sobremonte, brother of Simon Vaez Sevilla. Circumcised Thomas.
Vaez, Leonor: Wife of Agustine Roxas. Her effigy was burned after her husband hung himself in prison.
Vaez Pereyra, Rodrigo: Husband of Isabel Antonia; burned at the stake in 1639.
Vaez Sevilla, Simon: See Simon Vaez Sevilla.
Valencia, Luis: His testimony details fasting practices.
Varagne, Dominique: Scholar who wrote about the majority of New Spain merchants in the 17th century being Jews.
Velasco, Luis (Marquis de Salinas): Viceroy of Peru (1596-1604).
Velozinos, Haham Jehosua: Accompanied Rabbi Isaac Aboab to Brazil in 1641.
Verdugo, Francisco (Inquisitor): Wrote to the Inquisitor-General about the smuggling of prohibited books into the colonies.
Vieira, Antonio (S.J.): (1608-1697) Jesuit priest, considered the third greatest Portuguese in history. Befriended New Christians and Jews to improve Portugal's economy, advocated reform of the Holy Office.
Villadiego (Inquisitor): Inquisitor of the Cartagena tribunal, accused of having Jewish friends from whom he received gifts and loans.
Villena, Marquis de (Duke of Escalona): Viceroy who received indigo from Sebastian Vaz Acevedo.
Vincent Ferrer: See Ferrer, Vincent.
Vitoria, Francisco de (Bishop): Bishop from Tucuman of Jewish parentage, boasted of organizing trade between Peru and Brazil through Buenos Aires.
Voltaire, Francois Marie Arouet: (1694-1778) French philosopher.
Weinfeld, Eduardo: Latin American writer and historian who discussed the importance of "minyan" for Jewish survival.
Werner, Eric: Scholar.
Whitaker, Arthur P.: Scholar.
Willoughby, Lord: Admitted judges would not accept testimony from "Hebrews" in Barbados courts.
Wiznitzer, Arnold: Scholar who translated the Recife congregation minute book and wrote about Jews in colonial Brazil.
Wolff, Egon and Frieda: Scholars who questioned whether Fernao Loronha was a Jew and located a synagogue in Bahia.
Wolf, Lucien: President of the Jewish Historical Society of England, found the phrase "dog which returned to its vomit" in Inquisition proceedings.
Yerushalmi, Yosef H.: Scholar who discussed the differences between Spanish and Portuguese Marranos.
Zacuto, Abraham: (1452-1515) Jewish astronomer, friend of King Manuel of Portugal.
Zevi, Sabbatai: (1626-1676) Self-proclaimed Jewish Messiah whose conversion to Islam caused great disillusionment.
Zumarraga (Spanish Bishop): Penanced 19 Jews during his tenure as apostolic inquisitor in Mexico (1536-1543).