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Jesuit Order as Synagogue of Jews.pdf

Briefing Document: "Jesuit Order as Synagogue of Jews"

I. Core Theme: The Tension Between Universalism and Purity of Blood within the Jesuit Order.

The overarching theme is the internal struggle within the Jesuit order, particularly in Spain and Portugal, regarding the admission and treatment of conversos (New Christians, descendants of Jewish converts to Christianity). This tension arose from the conflict between the Jesuit's stated universal mission and the societal pressures of "purity of blood" (limpieza de sangre) ideologies prevalent at the time. This tension played out in debates over the admission of conversos, their roles within the order, and accusations that the Society was becoming a "synagogue of Jews."

II. Key Ideas and Arguments

  • Discrimination within the Order: The documents reveal an ongoing debate about whether to restrict conversos from holding positions of power or influence within the Jesuit order. Some members advocated for limiting their roles to lower-level positions, fearing that their presence would disrupt the unity of the Society and offend powerful figures like inquisitors and ministers of the King:
  • "Remedium esset tales amplius non admittere, admissos vero in humilioribus offi ciis et in scholarum functionibus tantum continere, ad nullam vero gubernationem promovere." (The remedy would be not to admit such people any more, and to keep those who have been admitted only in lower offices and in the functions of the schools, and not to promote them to any government).
  • "Conviene que tengamos cuidado y miramiento de no darles cargo en ciertos puestos principales, y particularmente donde hay Inquisición o otras circunstancias que pueden ofender los ojos de los que nos están mirando." (It is appropriate that we take care and consideration not to give them positions in certain principal posts, and particularly where there is Inquisition or other circumstances that can offend the eyes of those who are watching us.)
  • Fear of External Perception: A major concern was the perception of the Jesuit order by outsiders, especially those in positions of power. The presence of conversos was seen as a potential source of criticism and could damage the reputation and effectiveness of the Society:
  • "Et cur non timemus ne off endamus multo plures nobiles, immo etiam principes, qui ob hoc hominum genus nobis non obscure off ensi, nostram Societatem cum nota infamia vocant synagogam iudaeorum?" (And why do we not rather fear that we may offend many more nobles, indeed even princes, who, not obscurely offended by this kind of men, call our Society with a mark of infamy a synagogue of Jews?)
  • Defense of Universalism: Counterarguments emphasized the Jesuit's mission to serve all people, regardless of their background. They invoked the teachings of St. Paul and the example of Ignatius of Loyola who believed that God does not discriminate based on lineage:
  • "Dios N[uestro] S[eñor] no limita la comunicación de sus gracias y virtudes a san-gre o linajes, sed tribuit omnibus abundanter." (God Our Lord does not limit the communication of his graces and virtues to blood or lineages, but distributes them abundantly to all).
  • "Esso era prudentissimo et veramente santo, era forestiero in Roma, stato nell’Inquisitione di Spagna ancor che innocentemente sapeva quanta tempesta in quei medesimi tempi era stata eccitata contra la Compagnia, non di meno esso il quale sentiva che lo spirito di Dio no era accettatore di persone et che credeva più a Gesù Christo che alla prudentia terrena, seguì quel modo onde et esso restò scolpito negli animi della Compagnia et la ridusse in stato tale che niuna cosa lo mosse ad alterare il suo ordine, sapendo che Dio comanda quod Deus coniungit homo non separet." (Ignatius was most prudent and truly holy, he was a foreigner in Rome, he had been in the Inquisition of Spain even though innocently, he knew how much tempest in those same times had been excited against the Society, nevertheless he who felt that the spirit of God was not an accepter of persons and that he believed more in Jesus Christ than in earthly prudence, followed that way whereby both he remained sculpted in the minds of the Society and reduced it to such a state that nothing moved him to alter his order, knowing that God commands that what God joins together, man does not separate.)
  • Concerns about Institutional Integrity: Some feared that excluding conversos would fundamentally alter the character of the Jesuit order and undermine its core principles. This could lead to the creation of a different kind of religious order, deviating from the original vision of Ignatius of Loyola:
  • "Prima, quia statuto alteratur et mutatur eius institutum in re satis substantiale, quod nos a Patre nostro Ignatio accepimus eumque probabiliter credimus illud a Deo immediate recepisse quoad omnia substantialia." (First, because the statute alters and changes its institute in a matter that is quite substantial, which we received from our Father Ignatius and we probably believe that he received it directly from God regarding all substantial things.)
  • "Quare si tunc pater noster Ignatius obstitit huic statuto videtur necessario nunc repugnaturus fuisse." (Wherefore if then our father Ignatius opposed this statute, it seems necessarily that he would have been opposed now.)
  • "Et quamvis vivente patre nostro generali propter ipsius animi constantiam, et invictum brachium non illis praevalituros probabile sit. Tamen cum nunc plures huius generis adolescentes sint, illo defi ciente forte praevalebunt." (And although while our father general is alive, because of the constancy of his soul and his invincible arm, it is probable that they will not prevail against them. Nevertheless, since now there are more young men of this kind, when he fails, perhaps they will prevail.)
  • Examples of Successful Converso Jesuits: The text points out that many conversos had made significant contributions to the Society, demonstrating their intellectual and spiritual capabilities. Excluding them would deprive the order of valuable talent:
  • "Confi rmatur [ . . . ] quia licet Pater noster Ignatius esset natione Gipuzcuanus, cuius rationi homines eos, qui ex circumcisione sunt praecipuo prosequuntur odio, tamen spiritus Dei affl atus, magna consultatione divina praemissa, post multas ora-tiones, poenitentias et sacrifi cia, illos praecipuo amore prosecutus est, nec a sua com-munitate reiecit, quin potius admisit huius nationis homines, quia suae doctrinae, sanctitate et eruditione Societatem illustrarunt, eamque in concilio tridentino inte-gram et indemnem in suo instituto conservarunt" (It is confirmed [ . . . ] because although our Father Ignatius was Basque, whose people pursue with special hatred those who are of the circumcision, nevertheless the spirit of God, with great divine consultation having been sent, after many prayers, penances and sacrifices, has pursued them with special love, nor has he rejected them from his community, but rather he has admitted men of this nation, because their doctrine, holiness and erudition have illuminated the Society and preserved it intact and unharmed in its institute in the Council of Trent).
  • Divisions and Conflicts within the Order: The controversy over conversos fueled internal divisions and power struggles, particularly between Spanish and Portuguese members. Accusations of favoritism, ambition, and undermining the Society's unity were common:
  • "The second cause of the fear is because of some in Portugal... The which among other things caused that from that time on Father Emmanuele Rodriguez, who until that time had written to him many times that he feared nothing of this and that he was well with everyone, and of Father Cipriano and of others who loved him, he served very much, he began afterwards to accommodate himself to the humor that he had discovered was in N... and thus following the common use he also began to show how many have done to applaud N... in this, even though the best Fathers of the Company and who feel about Jesus and his Society in goodness, recognize and recognized until the time of the general congregation that this was mere passion."
  • Historical Context: The excerpts reference historical figures and events, such as the Toledan statutes, Pope Nicholas V's bull, and the Council of Trent, providing a broader context for understanding the debates within the Jesuit order. They demonstrate how deeply ingrained discriminatory attitudes were in Spanish society and how they impacted religious institutions. The reference to the statutes shows how the debate over limpieza de sangre extended beyond the Jesuit order.

III. Implications

The excerpts suggest that the Jesuit order, while striving to uphold its universal mission, faced significant challenges in navigating the complex social and political landscape of early modern Spain and Portugal. The debates over conversos reflected broader tensions between religious ideals and societal prejudices, highlighting the difficulties of maintaining unity and integrity in the face of discrimination. The material suggests this tension was never fully resolved, as the universalist mission remained in conflict with local custom.

How did purity of blood influence Jesuit policies on converso membership?

The concept of pureza de sangre, or purity of blood, significantly influenced the policies of the Jesuit Order regarding its converso (New Christian) members, particularly during the 16th and 17th centuries.

Here's how purity of blood influenced Jesuit policies on converso membership:

  • Origin and Meaning of Pureza de Sangre: The discriminatory concept originated in mid-15th century Spain. It was based on the belief that Jewish converts to Christianity and their descendants carried the "unfaithfulness of the deicide Jews" in their blood, regardless of their sincerity as Christians. Old Christians considered New Christians impure and morally inadequate.
  • Early Jesuit Pro-Converso Policy (1540–1572):
    • Initially, the Jesuit leadership, including Ignatius of Loyola, opposed the purity-of-blood concept. They resisted attempts to exclude conversos from joining the Jesuits.
    • Loyola and his successors, Diego Laínez and Francisco de Borja, strategically benefitted from their converso confreres.
    • Loyola instructed that the Society should not discriminate based on lineage in the Jesuit Constitutions. He stated that the Society takes pleasure in admitting those of Jewish ancestry.
    • Loyola's acceptance of conversos was also influenced by the converso spiritual and merchant network.
  • Discrimination Against Jesuits of Jewish Lineage (1573–1593):
    • After the death of Francisco de Borja in 1572, there was a shift in the Society's policy towards conversos.
    • An anti-converso Italo-Portuguese lobby conspired to block the election of Juan Alfonso de Polanco, who was a converso, and elected Everard Mercurian as Superior General.
    • Mercurian began a "house cleaning," removing converso Jesuits from governmental posts.
    • Under Mercurian's successor, Claudio Acquaviva, discriminatory legislation was enacted in 1593, which officially barred conversos from joining the Society. This decree proclaimed that Jewish or Muslim ancestry, no matter how distant, was an insurmountable impediment for admission.
    • The 1593 decree ignored Loyola's desires expressed in the Jesuit Constitutions and contradicted the practice of the first three generalates.
  • Jesuit Opposition to Purity-of-Blood Discrimination (1576–1608):
    • The 1593 decree provoked opposition, leading to a limitation of the lineage inquiry by General Congregation Six in 1608.
    • Influential Jesuits like Antonio Possevino, Pedro de Ribadeneyra, Diego de Guzmán, Juan de Mariana, and García Girón de Alarcón opposed the discrimination.
    • They argued against the purity-of-blood concept, emphasizing that lineage distinctions contradicted the Jesuit tradition.
    • Some Jesuits pointed out the ramifications of discrimination against conversos for the relationship with aboriginal peoples with whom the Jesuits worked as missionaries.
  • Impact and Consequences of the Purity-of-Blood Laws:
    • The implementation of purity-of-blood laws had different stages in early Jesuit history.
    • The anti-converso decree led to the departure of influential and valued converso Jesuits from the Society.
    • It created a culture of opinion rather than law, where individuals might forge documents to circumvent the limitations.
    • The decree caused a decline in admissions in Iberia and the Indies.
  • Theological and Philosophical Arguments:
    • Some argued against the efficacy of baptism if lineage determined one's fitness for the Society.
    • The policy was seen as contrary to the Jesuit mission of bringing all men to the faith, regardless of their origin.
    • It was argued that the decree altered the Jesuit Institute and contradicted Ignatius's original vision.

Despite the initial acceptance and influence of conversos in the Society of Jesus, the rising tide of anti-converso sentiment and the implementation of purity-of-blood laws led to discriminatory policies that eventually barred individuals of Jewish ancestry from joining the order. This shift reflected broader societal trends in early modern Spain, where limpieza de sangre became an obsessive concern.

Why did Silíceo promote purity-of-blood statutes?

Archbishop Silíceo, also known as Juan Martínez Guijarro (1477–1557), promoted purity-of-blood statutes for several reasons.

Motivations:

  • Social Background and Ambition: Silíceo was born into a poor peasant family, which guaranteed the purity of his blood. He used the Latinized form of his name to disguise his lower-class social background.
  • Political Reasons: Silíceo sought a pretext to act against the converso Cobos clan of Toledo, whose representative, Francisco de los Cobos y Molina, opposed Silíceo's appointment to the archbishopric. He also aimed to sabotage the nomination of the converso Fernando Jiménez as canon of the Toledan Church.
  • Belief in the Inherited Moral Inclinations: Silíceo shared the belief that conversos inherited bad moral inclinations from their Jewish ancestors, making them unsuitable for public office. He claimed conversos "still hold on their lips the milk of their ancestors' recent perversity". To Silíceo, this inclination to vice was inherent from birth.
  • Historical Context: Silíceo's actions were influenced by the history of anti-converso discrimination, including the 1449 Sentencia-Estatuto of Toledo. He viewed himself as the harbinger of the second Spanish Reconquista and worked to have his anti-converso laws approved by royal and papal authorities.
  • Racial Discrimination: Silíceo's view was that the choice between pure and impure Christians was like choosing between purebred and inbred horses. One of the major defenders of Silíceo’s racial discrimination was Bishop Diego de Simancas.

When did purity-of-blood concerns originate in Spain?

Concerns about pureza de sangre, or purity of blood, originated in Spain in the mid-15th century. Specifically, the text mentions that purity of blood was an "obsessive concern that originated in mid-fifteenth-century Spain".

Key events and documents associated with the rise of purity-of-blood concerns:

  • 1391: Massive conversions of Jews to Christianity occurred due to brutal pogroms.
  • 1449: The history of anti-converso discrimination began with the Sentencia-Estatuto adopted in Toledo. This legislation resulted from a popular uprising against King Juan II, led by Pero de Sarmiento, the city mayor. The uprising was provoked by an attempt to raise revenue from the citizens of Toledo, which Sarmiento associated with the machinations of conversos. The city council barred converted Jews and their descendants from public offices, claiming their untrustworthy faith and continued Judaizing.
  • 1449-50: Bishop Alonso de Cartagena's Defensorium unitatis christianae.
  • 1450-66: Fray Alonso de Oropesa's Lumen ad revelationem gentium et gloria plebis Dei Israel, de unitate fi dei et de concordi et pacifi ca aequalitate fi delium.
  • 1547: The Pureza-de-sangre Statutes of Juan Martínez Guijarro (Silíceo), Inquisitor General of Spain and Archbishop of Toledo, were enacted.

When was the Jesuit purity decree mitigated?

The Jesuit purity decree, which barred conversos (New Christians) from joining the Society of Jesus, was superficially mitigated in 1608 by the Sixth General Congregation.

Here's more context:

  • 1593 Decree: The initial decree, enacted in 1593 under Superior General Claudio Acquaviva, proclaimed that Jewish or Muslim ancestry, no matter how distant, was an insurmountable impediment for admission to the Society. This decree contradicted Loyola's desires and the practices of the first three generalates.
  • Opposition to the Decree: The 1593 decree faced strong opposition from within the Jesuit order. Influential Jesuits such as Antonio Possevino, Pedro de Ribadeneyra, Diego de Guzmán, and Juan de Mariana wrote against the discrimination.
  • 1608 Mitigation: As a result of this opposition, the Sixth General Congregation in 1608 took steps to mitigate the 1593 decree. However, this mitigation was only superficial, limiting the genealogical inquiry to the fifth generation. The decree itself was not revoked at this time.
  • 1946 Revocation: The purity-of-blood decree was not fully revoked until 1946 by General Congregation 29.

How did Conversos benefit early Jesuits?

Conversos significantly benefited the early Jesuits in numerous ways, particularly from the Society's inception in 1540 through the generalates of Ignatius of Loyola, Diego Laínez, and Francisco de Borja.

Here’s how conversos contributed to the early Society of Jesus:

  • Financial Support: Ignatius of Loyola sought and received financial support from converso networks in Spain and the Spanish Netherlands before and after founding the Society. This financial backing was crucial for the establishment and growth of the Jesuit order.
  • Key Roles and Influence: Conversos played key roles in the Society, holding high posts of responsibility in the Jesuit administration. They were instrumental in the institutional and spiritual development of the early Jesuits.
  • Intellectual Contributions: Conversos richly, knowingly, and strategically contributed to the Society.
    • They authoritatively represented the Society at the Council of Trent.
    • They significantly contributed to transforming the Society into the first teaching order and to placing Greco-Roman culture at the center of the Jesuit school curriculum.
    • They boldly offered a new epistemological frame to casuistry as a transition from medieval Tutiorism to modern Probabilism.
    • They developed a new discipline of moral theology.
    • They staffed the papal penitentiary office at St. Peter’s basilica in Rome.
  • Missionary Work: Conversos filled the ranks of linguistically adroit missionaries in Asia and the Americas. They enthusiastically engaged in various extraordinary literary, diplomatic, and scientific endeavors, particularly missions dealing with "heretics" and schismatics.
  • Skills and Acumen: Conversos brought diverse skills and experiences to the Society. For example, Luis de Almeida, a merchant and surgeon from Lisbon, joined the Jesuit mission in Funai, Japan, where he founded a hospital. Giovanni Battista Eliano, grandson of Rabbi Elijah Levita, was admitted to the Society and given delicate ecumenical missions due to his linguistic acumen.
  • Leadership: Some conversos rose to prominent positions within the Society. Diego Laínez, himself of converso background, became the second Superior General. Juan Alfonso de Polanco served as the secretary of the Society for twenty-six years and was highly influential.
  • Advocacy for Inclusion: Early Jesuit leaders like Loyola, Laínez, and Borja advocated for the inclusion of conversos, opposing discriminatory policies. Their stance created a haven for conversos who faced discrimination elsewhere.
  • Support for Jesuit Principles: Conversos supported the constitutional principle of non-discrimination, as long as candidates were suitable for Jesuit life. They enriched the Society through their sanctity and learning.

What motivated Loyola's openness towards conversos?

Loyola's openness towards conversos was motivated by a combination of factors:

  • Spiritual Considerations: Loyola has been described as a "deep and sincere spiritual Semite". He desired to be a Jew by blood.
  • Erasmist and Alumbrado Contacts: Loyola had numerous contacts with influential Erasmists and alumbrados during his studies at Alcalá de Henares. These groups often had converso members or backgrounds, influencing Loyola's views.
  • Financial Support: Loyola sought and received financial support from converso networks in Spain and the Spanish Netherlands before founding the Society and as its Superior General. This financial backing may have motivated his positive approach.
  • Principled Stance: Loyola firmly refused to incorporate the Iberian pureza de sangre concept into the Jesuit Constitutions, indicating a long discernment against discrimination. He stressed the constitutional principle of non-discrimination in accepting candidates, provided they were suitable for Jesuit life.
  • Personal Connections:
    • Loyola's close friendships with conversos like Diego Laínez and Nicolás Bobadilla, whom he met at the University of Paris, influenced his perspective.
    • Loyola was surrounded by individuals of converso background during his "pilgrim years," including Juan Velázquez de Cuéllar, I[g]nés Pascual, Lope de Cáceres, Calixto de Sá [Sáa], Manuel Miona, and Miguel Eguía.
  • Pragmatic Approach: Loyola recognized that the Society was called to edify everybody. In 1545, Loyola ambiguously wrote to Pierre Favre, that the question of accepting some New Christians is being cautiously evaluated in Rome, for the Society is called to edify everybody, a goal that requires people who are not “on the fi les” [of the Inquisition], so that the Order’s spiritual outcome remain uncompromised.
  • Rejection of Discrimination: Loyola believed that there should be no distinction between Jews and Greeks united in the same spirit of divine service, even though one must be more cautious in receiving New Christians because they are usually difficult men. He advised against overwhelming such subjects with too much interrogation about their lineage, and suggested that if there was local difficulty in accepting them, they could be sent elsewhere, provided they were good subjects.
  • Trust in Conversos: Loyola gave significant credit to candidates of Jewish ancestry, such as Giovanni Battista Eliano, the grandson of Rabbi Elijah Levita. He appointed converso Jesuits like Juan Alfonso de Polanco to key positions, trusting them with important responsibilities.
  • Influence of Collaborators: Loyola's converso collaborators, especially Jerónimo Nadal and Juan Alfonso de Polanco, supported his non-discrimination policy. These figures were key in the institutional and spiritual development of the early Jesuits.