• nsubj csubj nsubjpass csubjpass 1, AGT
• dobj ccomp xcomp 2, PAT
• iobj DAT. If the clausal predicate does not have a DAT, insert a (binary) TO

• nmod advcl advmod neg 0

• vocative discourse expl -- as a baseline, 0
• aux auxpass cop punct 0
• mark
  • if the head is contentful, Forces engaged in fighting after insurgents attacked engage <-1- after -2-> attack
  • else He says that you like to swim say -2-> swim (1 comes from the dobj)

• relational nouns (occasion =TO, duty =POSS)
• nummod nmod acl amod det neg 0
• appos Sam , my brother , arrived sam <-0-> brother

• case (see section intermediate representations)

• use Enhanced Representation
• conj cc compound mwe goeswith name foreign -- drop the relation
• punct -- drop the dependent

• do not handle

phenomena we want to give more or less account of

• reducing ditransitives to binary predicates
• verb classes (motion, psych; Levin, Dowty, Vendler; unaccusative)
• arguments and adjuncts
• selectional restrictions
• unaccusative_verbs, ergative languages
• quirky case, language specific component

task

• compute FrameNet frames from dict_to_4lang graphs, for an other language for with there is a relational parser and a FrameNet, e.g. Chinese

further reading

• Makrai (2014) Deep cases in the 4lang concept lexicon
• Kornai, Nemeskey, Recski (2016) Detecting optional arguments of verbs, paper/LREC16/Optional
• John Carroll and Ted Briscoe (1997) Automatic Extraction of Subcategorization from Corpora
• DAT say-type vs give-type is parallel to Schank's (1972)? NTRANS AND PTRANS

• the approach we don't share: tense logic, time is parametrized by the real axis A Prioir, Tim Fernando
• Hans Reichenbach philosopher wikipedia
• B Partee: Nominal and temporal anaphora springer
• P Kiparsky (1968) Tense and mood in Indo-European syntax JSTOR
• A Timberlake et al eds (1985) The Scope of Slavic Aspect JSTOR
• Vendler Zéno (1957) Verbs and times
• aspect vs Aktionsart

In theory, the 4lang representation system has three (interrelated) formalisms:

• logical formulae ((linear) strings)
• graph (good for visualizaton)
• Eilenberg machines with partitions (operators. But it is not clear, how Eilenberg machines frame our grasp of semantics.)

In graph terms, 4-lang is a semantic network with labeled nodes and edges. Node labels range over the whole vocabulary, edge labels are 0, 1, or 2. The label of a node that has a 2-labelled out-edge is a binary predicate. A set of primitive nodes (nodes that don't have to be expanded with their defining graphs, e.g. cause, has, after, lack) have to be listed in a separate resource.

• Hyperedge Replacement Grammar
  • "Graph parsing with s-graph grammars" (J. Groschwitz, A. Koller, C. Teichmann), Proc. ACL, 2015.
  • "A Synchronous Hyperedge Replacement Grammar based approach for AMR parsing" (X. Peng, L. Song, and D. Gildea), Proc. CoNLL, 2015.
  • "Parsing Graphs with Hyperedge Replacement Grammars," (D. Chiang, J. Andreas, D. Bauer, K. M. Hermann, B. Jones, and K. Knight), Proc. ACL, 2013.
• unification
  • HPSG
  • PATR Pereira, F. and S. Shieber (1984) The Semantics of Grammar Formalisms Seen as Computer Languages
  • in logical formulas: JA Robinson (1965) A Machine-Oriented Logic Based on the Resolution Principle

• a path of 0-edges means that all the nodes along the path can be unified (substituted in the first one)
• similarly, as soon as we have attack <-1- PAT -2-> dragon, this subgraph can be replaced by attack -2-> dragon. Edge labels 1 and 2 correspond to deep cases AGT and PAT resp.