Metaphor - denten-courses/metaphor-media GitHub Wiki

Synthesis

Very few concepts related to rhetoric and speech have been explored as much – and with such a large amount of different approaches – as that of the metaphor. The one common definition one can obtain from the little consensus there is regarding its nature is that it is a rhetoric device that uses a single word or a phrase that is applied to a concept or an idea and modifies the way it is communicated, whether it is through dialogue or the written word. Each of the scholars that has approached this device has had a singular reasoning for its purpose, the rules regarding its use and its relationship with the human mind. However, when observing at them through a historical and chronological perspective, some agreement can be found, and some schools of thought can be identified.

The early philosophers who started analyzing the metaphor – such as Aristotle, Cicero and Quintilian – decided to focus on truly studying and understanding the nature of the metaphor: its purpose and the rules behind its use, making especially clear when these devices are unfit and used in a wrong manner. Aristotle, as in the quotes noted in the “Quotes” and “Examples”, gave his analysis an approach that seemed to try to instruct his reader on the kinds of metaphor and the ways in which they can be constructed and properly used – almost serving the role of a metaphor manual. The other authors that started analyzing the metaphor, while also classifying the metaphor in types and explaining it’s use, were more interested in the reason why we use metaphors, and the role they function in our communication with each other and art. Some described it as something necessary due to the limits of our language – such as Cicero and Quintilian – and others as mere ornaments – such as Augustine and Erasmus.

However, from the moment in which Francis Bacon’s Novum Organum , a new perspective was given to the metaphor’s analysis – one that had been hinted at by earlier authors, yet never explicitly addressed. This group of philosophers decided to use the metaphor as a way to discuss the way humans think and process reality, as well as the way in which we express our intangible thoughts. In the second quote from Bacon cited in the “Quotes” section, we can observe how he introduced the idea of metaphors (or “idols”) being a way through which we can express our thoughts, and also how he specifically chose to focus on the kinds of thoughts it can represent. It is important to single out the contributions from Cheselden, Diderot and Gottfired, since they use storytelling and examples of blind men who have particular relationships with their bodies and have to use their sense of touch in order to perceive reality. These authors explore the accuracy of sight and the process of perception of reality, which is approached through the idea of the metaphor.

Another change that was done to the approach scholars had towards the study of the metaphor is the introduction of the concept of the “dead word”, by Viktor Shklovsky. As show in the quotes cited below, he explored the lack of an introduction of new words and explains that, in order for man to move forward in the creation of words and bring the words “back to life”, one must give words embellishments, or “features” as he describes them.

Quotes

Words are two kinds, simple and double… Metaphor is the application of an alien name by transference either from genus to species or from species to genus, or from species to species or by analogy, that is, proportion…So, again, if we take a strange (or rare) words, a metaphor, or any similar mode of expression, and replace it by the current or proper term, the truth of our observation be manifest

Aristotle. Poetics. Edited by S. H. Butcher. (London: Macmillan and Co., 1902); 77,79,85

It is metaphor above all that gives perspicuity, pleasure, and a foreign air, and it cannot be learnt from anyone else ; but we must make use of metaphors and epithets that are appropriate. This will be secured by observing due proportion ; otherwise there will be a lack of propriety, because it is when placed in juxtaposition that contraries are most evident.

Aristotle. The Art of Rhetoric. Translated by John Henry Freese. (London: William Heinemann, 1996), 355

The third mode, that of using words in a metaphorical sense, is widely prevalent, a mode of which necessity was the parent, compelled by the sterility and narrowness of language ; but afterward delight and pleasure made it frequent ... These metaphors, therefore, are a species of borrowing, as you take from something else that which you have not of your own.

Cicero. On Oratory and Orators. Translated and edited by J. S. Watson. (New York: Harper & Brothers Publishers, 1860); 236-237

Let us begin, then, with the commonest and by far the most beautiful of tropes, namely, metaphor … It adds to the copiousness of language by the interchange of words and by borrowing , and finally succeeds in accomplishing the supremely difficult task of providing a name for everything … We do this either because it is necessary or to make our meaning clearer or, as I already have said, to produce a decorative effect.

Quintilian. The Institutio of Oratoria of Quintillian. Edited and translated by H. E. Butler. (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1921); 303

if ever any of them endeavored to make it out that their idols were only signs, yet still they used them in reference to the worship and adoration of the creature. What difference does it make to me, for instance, that the image of Neptune is not itself to be considered a god, but only as representing the wide ocean, and all the other waters besides that spring out of fountains? ... to take signs for the things that are signified by them, is a mark of weakness and bondage ; so to interpret signs wrongly is the result of being misled by error

Augustine, Aurelius. On Christian Doctrine. Translated by Professor J. F. Shaw. (Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1873); 87,89

style is to thought as clothes are to the body. Just as dress and outward appearance can enhance or disfigure the beauty and dignity of the body, so words can enhance or disfigure thought. Accordingly a great mistake is made by those who consider that it makes no difference how anything is expressed, provided it can be understood somehow or other. The practice of giving variety to expression is exactly like changing clothes.

Erasmus, Desiderius. "Copia: Foundations of the Abundant Style", in Collected Works of Erasmus. Edited by Craig R. Thompson. (University of Toronto Press, 1978); 306.

There are also idols formed by the reciprocal intercourse and society of man with man, which we call idols of the market, from the commerce and association of men with each other; for men converse by means of language, but words are formed at the will of the generality

Bacon, Francis. Novum Organum. Edited by Joseph Devey. (New York: P. F. Collier and Son, 1901); 21

The idols imposed upon the understanding by words are of two kinds. They are either the names of things which have no existence ... or they are the names of actual objects, but confused, badly defined, and hastily and irregularly abstracted from things

Bacon, Francis. Novum Organum. Edited by Joseph Devey. (New York: P. F. Collier and Son, 1901); 32

We should never make use of signs except to express the ideas we actually have in our minds. If it is a question of substances, the names we give them should refer only to the qualities we have observed in them and of which we have made our collections. ... We must especially avoid the careless assumption that others attach to the same words the same ideas that we do.

De Condillac, Etienne Bonnot. Essay on the Origin of Human Knowledge. Translated and edited by Hans Aarsleff. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001); 171

The general use of Speech, is to transfer our Mental Discourse, into Verbal ; or the Trayne of our Thoughts, into a Trayne of Words ; and that for two commodities... the first use of names, is to serve for Marks, or Notes of remembrance. Another is, when many use the same words, to signify (by their connection and order,) one to another, what they conceive, or think of each matter ; and also what they desire, fear, or have any other passion for. And for this use they are called Signes.

Hobbes, Thomas. Leviathan, or the Matter, Form and Power of a Commonwealth, Ecclesiastical and Civil. Edited by A. R. Walker. (London: C. J. Clay and Sons, 1904); 14.

Besides articulate sounds therefore, it was farther necessary, that he should be able to use these sounds as signs of internal conceptions ; and to make them stand as marks for the ideas within his own mind, whereby they might be made known to others, and the thoughts of men's minds be conveyed from one to another

Locke, John. An Essay concerning Human Understanding. Edited by J.T. Buckingham. (Boston: Cummings & Hilliard and J.T. Buckingham, 1813); 396

Words are the sensible signs of his ideas who uses them. The use men have of these marks, being either to record their own thoughts for the assistance of their own memory, or as it were to bring out their ideas, and lay them before the view of others ; words in their primary or immediate signification stand for nothing hut the ideas in the mind of him that uses them, how imperfectly soever, or carelessly those ideas are collected from the things, which they are supposed to represent.

Locke, John. An Essay concerning Human Understanding. Edited by J.T. Buckingham. (Boston: Cummings & Hilliard and J.T. Buckingham, 1813); 399

And thus it was with this young Gentleman, who though he knew these Colours asunder in a good light, yet when he saw them after he was couch’d, the faint Ideas he had of them before, were not sufficient for him to know them by afterwards and therefore he did not think them the same, which he had before known by those Names

Cheselden, William. An Account of Some Observations Made by a Young Gentleman, Who Was Born Blind, or Lost His Sight so Early, That He Had no Remembrance of Ever Having Seen, and Was Couch'd between 13 and 14 Years of Age". (London: Royal Society of London, 1753); 447-448

to me it has always been very clear that the state of our organs and our senses has a great influence on our metaphysics and our morality, and that those ideas which seem purely intellectual are closely dependent on the conformation of our bodies.

Diderot, Dennis. Letters on the Blind for Use of Those who see. Edited and translated by Margared Jourdain. (Chicago and London: The Open Court Publishing Company, 1916); 80

sight reveals merely shapes, but touch alone reveals bodies: that everything that has form is known only through the sense of touch and that sight reveals only visible surfaces ... Sight gives us dreams, touch gives us truth

Gottfried von Herder, Johann. Sculpture. Edited and translated by Jason Gaiger. (Chicago & London: The University of Chicago Press, 2002); 35,38

Thus genius properly consists in the happy relation [between Imagination and Understanding] … we thus find for these Ideas the expression, by means of which the subjective state of mind brought about by them, as an accompaniment of the concept, can be communicated to others. The latter talent is properly speaking what is called spirit ; for to express the ineffable element in the state of mind implied by a certain representation and to make it universally communicable … requires a faculty of seizing the quickly passing play of Imagination and of unifying it in a concept , that can be communicated without any constraint [of rules].

Kant, Emmanuel. Critique of Judgement. Edited and translated by J. H. Bernard. (London: Macmillan and Co., 1914); 202

[Man] will always exchange truths for illusions. What is a word? It is the copy in sound of a nerve stimulus. But the further inference from the nerve stimulus to a cause outside of us is already the result of a false and unjustifiable application of the principle of sufficient reason ... To begin with, a nerve stimulus is transferred into an image: first metaphor. The image, in turn, is imitated in a sound: second metaphor. And each time there is a complete overlapping of one sphere, right into the middle of an entirely new and different one.

Nietzsche, Emmanuel. On Truth and Lies in a Nonmoral Sense. Edited and translated by Daniel Breazeale. (New Jersey: Humanities Press, 1993); 81-82

The metaphor process is, then, a mode of getting at abstract ideas, and only when it is complete can one use "plain statements."

Buck, Gertrude. The Metaphor: A Study in the Psychology of Rhetoric . Edited by Fred Newton Scott. (Michigan: The Inland Press, 1899); 42

The most ancient poetic creation of man was the creation of words. Now words are dead, and language is like a graveyard, but an image was once alive in the newly-born word. Every word is basically – a trope … And often enough, when you get through to the image which is now lost and effaced, but once embedded at the basis of the word, then you are struck by its beauty- by a beauty which existed once and is now gone.

Shklovsky, Viktor. The Resurrection of a Word. Edited and translated by Richard Sherwood. (New York: Barnes and Noble Books, 1914); 41

And now, today, when the artist wishes to deal with living form and with the living, not the dead, word, and wishes to give the word features, he has broken it down and mangled it up. The 'arbitrary' and 'derived' words of the Futurists have been born. They either create the new word from an old root … or split it up by rhyme, like Mayakovsky, or give it incorrect stress by use of the rhythm of verse.

Shklovsky, Viktor. The Resurrection of a Word. Edited and translated by Richard Sherwood. (New York: Barnes and Noble Books, 1914); 46

in many of the most important uses of metaphor, the co-presence of the vehicle and tenor results in a meaning (to be clearly distinguished from the tenor) which is not attainable without their interaction. That the vehicle is not normally a mere embellishment of a tenor which is otherwise unchanged by it but that vehicle and tenor in co-operation give a meaning of more varied powers than can be ascribed to either.

Richards, I. A. The Philosophy of Rhetoric. (Oxford, London and New York: Oxford University Press, 1936); 100

Our skill with metaphor, with thought, is one thing - prodigious and inexplicable; our reflective awareness of that skill is quite another thing-very incomplete, distorted, fallacious, over-simplifying. Its business is not to replace practice, or to tell us how to do what we cannot do already; but to protect our natural skill from the interferences of unnecessarily crude views about it; and, above, all, to assist the imparting of that skill- that command of metaphor - from mind to mind.

Richards, I. A. The Philosophy of Rhetoric. (Oxford, London and New York: Oxford University Press, 1936); 116

Examples

Iphicrates called Callias a mendicant priest instead of a torch-bearer, Callias replied that Iphicrates himself could not be initiated, otherwise he would not have called him mendicant priest but torch-bearer; both titles indeed have to do with a divinity, but the one is honorable, the other dishonorable.

Aristotle. The Art of Rhetoric. Translated by John Henry Freese. (London: William Heinemann, 1996), 357

pirates now call themselves 'purveyors' ; and so it is allowable to say that the man who has committed a crime has 'made a mistake', that the man who has 'made a mistake' is " guilty of crime," and that one who has committed a theft has either 'taken' or 'ravaged'

Aristotle. The Art of Rhetoric. Translated by John Henry Freese. (London: William Heinemann, 1996), 357

in old times, on the death of Marcus Cato, any one had said that the senate was left ' an orphan,' the ex pression had been rather bold ; but, ' so to speak, an orphan,'

Cicero. On Oratory and Orators. Translated and edited by J. S. Watson. (New York: Harper & Brothers Publishers, 1860); 240

One speaker earned censure by saying that Rome was 'castrated' by the death of Camillus, meaning that the strength of the city collapsed at his death.

Erasmus, Desiderius. "Copia: Foundations of the Abundant Style", in Collected Works of Erasmus. Edited by Craig R. Thompson. (University of Toronto Press, 1978); 314.

Another similar example is: 'He destroyed the plains of peace, and raised the mountains of war.' The metaphor would have been less violent if the writer had used the image of a calm sea and a stormy one.

Erasmus, Desiderius. "Copia: Foundations of the Abundant Style", in Collected Works of Erasmus. Edited by Craig R. Thompson. (University of Toronto Press, 1978); 314.

It will be found that the word 'moist' is nothing but a confused sign of different actions admitted of no settled and defined uniformity. For it means that which easily diffuses itself over another body; that which is indeterminable and cannot be brought to a consistency; that which yields easily in every direction; that which is easily divided and dispersed; that which is easily united and collected; that which easily flows and is put in motion; that which easily adheres to, and wets another body; that which is easily reduced to a liquid state though previously solid.

Bacon, Francis. Novum Organum. Edited by Joseph Devey. (New York: P. F. Collier and Son, 1901); 33

To form the idea of a criminal action, for instance, it is not enough to observe what is exterior and visible in it, for we must also grasp things which do not appear before our eyes. We must examine the intention of the perpetrator, discover the relation of the crime to the law, and sometimes even know many circumstances that preceded it.

De Condillac, Etienne Bonnot. Essay on the Origin of Human Knowledge. Translated and edited by Hans Aarsleff. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001); 170

the Name Body is of larger signification than the word Man, and comprehendeth it ; and the names Man and Rational, are of equal extent, comprehending mutually one another. But here we must take notice, that by a Name is not always understood, as in Grammar, one only Word; but sometimes by circumlocution many words together.

Hobbes, Thomas. Leviathan, or the Matter, Form and Power of a Commonwealth, Ecclesiastical and Civil. Edited by A. R. Walker. (London: C. J. Clay and Sons, 1904); 15.

Awakening from sleep in the nocturnal twilight, before we fully come to consciousness, a forest and a tree, like proximity and distance, occupy a single ground: we see them as giants close by or as distant dwarves, as phantoms that move toward us, until finally we awake and come to ourselves. Only then do we understand that we have actually learned how to see through force of habit and by using our other senses, above all, by using our sense of touch.

Gottfried von Herder, Johann. Sculpture. Edited and translated by Jason Gaiger. (Chicago & London: The University of Chicago Press, 2002); 36

We speak of a “snake”: this designation touches only upon its ability to twist itself and could therefore also fit a worm.

Nietzsche, Emmanuel. On Truth and Lies in a Nonmoral Sense. Edited and translated by Daniel Breazeale. (New Jersey: Humanities Press, 1993); 82

when the child says "moon" as he points to the lamp-globe, we know that "moon" represents to him a single physical sensation which he refers vaguely to any large, white, softly glowing object which is present to his consciousness.

Buck, Gertrude. The Metaphor: A Study in the Psychology of Rhetoric . Edited by Fred Newton Scott. (Michigan: The Inland Press, 1899); 36

Let us suppose, for instance, that the series which we have traced as far as the expression "teeth white as pearl" be carried still further. The vague feeling that two sensations were identical has branched into a sense of two objects or images connected by resemblance, and this resemblance has been identified as a quality or characteristic common to both objects, —the quality of whiteness. This quality, now brought into clear consciousness, has freed the one object from the other.

Buck, Gertrude. The Metaphor: A Study in the Psychology of Rhetoric . Edited by Fred Newton Scott. (Michigan: The Inland Press, 1899); 41

Synthesis

Metaphor II (technology)

Roman Jakobson’s essay “Two Aspects of Language and Two Types of Aphasic Disturbances” may serve to explain the two types of Aphasic disturbances in speech, but for the purpose of this project, we can explore how one of the two aspects of language, metaphor in particular is of importance in the world of modern technology. Jakobson writes on the operational and structural aspects of a language. By extracting his description of the metaphoric aspect (similarity based language) we can begin to form a metaphorical path among the balance of this semester's readings. They all pave way for, hint at, or being the conversation on the importance of metaphor in technology. Even within Tambiah’s “The Magical Power of Words” we can connect to metaphor in technology.

The connection is found in the relationship between symbols and movement. Technology uses symbols (icons) to represent (metaphorically) an action. The balance of these readings connect metaphor (not just in technology), with action. Tambiah's observation of ritual, prayer, and spell casting, is representation of how words have the power to move. Similarly, Hanna Arendt writes on the power of words, particularly LOGOS. It is logos that has the ability to reach the cognitive (the emotional) and create movement. The argument, hypothesis, and experiments of the last of the readings, looks at metaphor through the lens of human emotion. Without emotion, these authors believe that metaphor acts along the lines of the literal, it is the emotion that creates movement. It is once metaphor is transformed into symbols that the metaphor represented by a symbol has the power to generate an action.

Tech giants like Apple, use signs, icons, and images, for ease of communication and teaching users about their product. They create a surreal world in which the items found are recognizable, and its action prompts are easy to perform and remember. With metaphor otherwise complicated products are both easily explained and comprehended. Displaying a familiar object, and connecting it to ‘basic’ commands, eradicates confusion. The user can connect arguably without thinking, as a picture will provide detailed instruction in some cases.

The last eight readings, aspirations toward the use of metaphor in technology lead to theories and hypothesis on definition, uses, and recognition of metaphor. The issue at hand, although metaphor on a desk top, in which actions are represented with symbols, is one thing. To reach the potential to reproduce metaphor on a more human level, there is one thing missing. That is the emotion. Not all authors seem to agree on the emotional aspect of metaphor. John M. Carroll focuses on the cognitive representation, while Dan Assaf hones in on the metalanguage. Saif M. Mohammad writes on the emotional in metaphor. "It is generally believed that a metaphor tends to have a stronger emotional impact than a literal statement..."(23). Metaphor is more than just mere representation, or comparing two unlikely items. It is more than graphics and icons to perform certain actions. What elevates and separates metaphor from the literal is the emotional impact. The advancement in technology would far surpass expectations if there was an understanding of emotion in metaphor.

Despite the experiments and the hypothesis, and debates, the barrier to a true advancement may lie in a failure to synthetically reproduce, or perhaps even to understand the connection between metaphor and emotion. Aristotle found genius in the ability to find a similarity. Now we understand that metaphor is not just the ability find a comparison between two unlikely things, there is an emotional intonation or emphasis that cannot be synthetically reproduced (as of yet). In communication, metaphor has an ability that the literal does not. Metaphor arguably has the ability to evoke emotion which is how people are moved. And it is this that tech companies are hoping to figure out how to duplicate.

QUOTES

If images don’t efficiently convey meaning, the user is lost in an environment of random objects (10)

Apple Human Interface Guidelines: The Apple Desktop Interface. (1987). Reading, Massachusetts. Menlo Park, California. New York: Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Inc., pp.3,10,20,22-23.

The desktop establishes the metaphor for the entire interface, and provides a stable, personalized background for the user” (20)

Apple Human Interface Guidelines: The Apple Desktop Interface. (1987). Reading, Massachusetts. Menlo Park, California. New York: Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Inc., pp.3,10,20,22-23.

Metaphor is for the most people a device of the poetic imagination and the rhetorical flourish---a matter of extraordinary rather than ordinary language. Moreover, metaphor is typically viewed as characteristic of language alone, a matter of words rather than action...We have found that metaphor on the contrary is persuasive in everyday life, not just in language but in thought and action (103).

Arendt, Hannah. "The Life of the Mind." Language and Metaphor and Metaphor and the Ineffable, 1975, 98-1.

What is lost in the mathematical reckoning is the actual function of the metaphor, its turning the mind back to the sensory world in order to illuminate the mind's non-sensory experiences for which there are no words in any language (106).

Arendt, Hannah. "The Life of the Mind." Language and Metaphor and Metaphor and the Ineffable, 1975, 98-1.

The metaphor achieves the impossible... the transition from one essential state, that of thinking to another , that of being an appearance among appearances and this can only be done analogies (103).

Arendt, Hannah. "The Life of the Mind." Language and Metaphor and Metaphor and the Ineffable, 1975, 98-1.

Assaf, Dan, and Yair Neuman. "2018 IEEE Symposium on Computational Intelligence, Cognitive Algorithms, Mind, and Brain (CCMB)." Why "Dark Thoughts" Aren't Really Dark: A Novel Algorithm for Metaphor Identification, 2013, 60-64.

Metaphorical language is a result of complex knowledge projection from one domain, typically a physical, closely experienced one, to another, typically more abstract and vague one (Lakoff and Johnson, 1980)

Metaphor allows us to introduce additional connotations and emphasize certain aspects of the target domain, while downplaying others (23)

A conceptual metaphor is a cognitive mechanism whereby one conceptual domain is used to understand another conceptual domain [Lakoff and Johnson 1980/1999] (60)

Carroll, John M., and John C. Thomas. "Metaphor and the Cognitive Representation of Computing Systems." IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics SMC-12, no. 2 (March/April, 1982): 107-16.

If people employ metaphors in learning about computing systems, the designers of those systems should anticipate and support likely metaphorical constructions to increase the ease of learning and using the system (108).

Carroll, John M., and John C. Thomas. "Metaphor and the Cognitive Representation of Computing Systems." IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics SMC-12, no. 2 (March/April, 1982): 107-16.

Metaphor is pervasive in everyday life, not just in language but in thought and action(3).

Lakoff, George, and Mark Johnson. "Concepts We Live By." 1980, 3-52.

Jakobson, Roman. "Two Aspects of Language and Two Types of Aphasic Disturbances." The Function and Structure of Language: 115-33.

One topic may lead to another through their similarity (129) word groups we need be familiar only with the constituent words and with the syntactic rules of their combination (118)

Jakobson, Roman. "Two Aspects of Language and Two Types of Aphasic Disturbances." The Function and Structure of Language: 115-33.

Our ordinary conceptual system, in terms of which we both think and act, is fundamentally metaphorical in nature (3)

Lakoff, George, and Mark Johnson. "Concepts We Live By." 1980, 3-52.

A far more subtle case of how a metaphorical concept can hide an aspect of our experience can be seen in what Michael Reddy has called the "conduit metaphor". Reddy observes that that our language about language is structured roughly by the following complex metaphor: Ideas (or meanings) are objects Linguistic Expressions are Containers Communication is Sending

Lakoff, George, and Mark Johnson. "Concepts We Live By." 1980, 3-52.

It is generally believed that a metaphor tends to have a stronger emotional impact than a literal statement; however, there is not quantitative study establishing the extent to which this is true.(23)

Mohammad, Saif M., Ekaterina Shutova, and Peter D. Turney. "Metaphor as a Medium for Emotion: An Emperical Study." Proceedings of the Fifth Joint Conference on Lexical and Computational Semantics (*SEM 2016), August 11, 2016, 23-33.

It is generally believed that the sense of a word can be divided into a metaphorical subset and a literal subset (Kilgarriff, 1977). (30) Mohammad, Saif M., Ekaterina Shutova, and Peter D. Turney. "Metaphor as a Medium for Emotion: An Emperical Study." Proceedings of the Fifth Joint Conference on Lexical and Computational Semantics (*SEM 2016), August 11, 2016, 23-33.

Substituting a metaphoric term with a literal one tends to change the meaning of the sentence in an important aspect--its emotional content (30).

Mohammad, Saif M., Ekaterina Shutova, and Peter D. Turney. "Metaphor as a Medium for Emotion: An Emperical Study." Proceedings of the FIfth Joint Conference on Lexical and Computational Semantics (*SEM 2016), August 11, 2016, 23-33.

While a prayer is an audible invocation and a supplication, the spells are muttered, use the language of command and employ a series of metaphorical images (178).

Tambiah, S. J. "The Magical Power of Words." Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland, New, 3, no. 2 (June 1968): 175-208. Accessed June 04, 2018. Http://www.jstor.org?stable/2798500.

In respect of linguistic operations the concept of metaphor presents no problem. The dictionary meaning is that it is a figure of speech in which a name or descriptive term is transferred to some object to which it is not properly applicable.

Examples

The icons, menus, windows, and other graphic elements on the screen make up a basic language with which the user and computer communicate.

Apple Human Interface Guidelines: The Apple Desktop Interface. (1987). Reading, Massachusetts. Menlo Park, California. New York: Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Inc., pp.3,10,20,22-23.

Another desktop element is the trash can, represented by its own icon…rather than mystifying the deletion of files, creating horrible images of computer memory losses, this mechanism provides a very understandable framework for this activity (22)

Apple Human Interface Guidelines: The Apple Desktop Interface. (1987). Reading, Massachusetts. Menlo Park, California. New York: Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Inc., pp.3,10,20,22-23.

(Kant gives as an example of a successful metaphor the description of the despotic state as a "mere machine (like a hand mill)" because of it is "governed by an individual absolute will...For between a despotic state and a hand mill there is, to be sure, no similarity,' but there is a similarity in the rules according to which we reflect upon these two things and their causality"(103-104).

Arendt, Hannah. "The Life of the Mind." Language and Metaphor and Metaphor and the Ineffable, 1975, 98-1.

Language, by lending itself to metaphorical usage, enables us to think, that is, to have traffic with non-sensory matters, because it permits a carrying-over, metapherein, of our sense experiences. There are not two worlds because metaphor units them.

Arendt, Hannah. "The Life of the Mind." Language and Metaphor and Metaphor and the Ineffable, 1975, 98-1.

Metaphors involve an adjective-noun phrase (60) example “sweet Child”

…people tend to try to learn about new things by making use of their past learning. New concepts –at least initially. We focus on a specific variety of this, the metaphorical extension from one structured domain into another. In particular we consider the role that metaphorical learning plays in the mastery of computing systems at various levels of ‘competence’. (107).

Carroll, John M., and John C. Thomas. "Metaphor and the Cognitive Representation of Computing Systems." IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics SMC-12, no. 2 (March/April, 1982): 107-16.

Finally, metaphors were provided to give the which gave the users a better “image” of what was happening and they recovered from errors much more easily (111).

Carroll, John M., and John C. Thomas. "Metaphor and the Cognitive Representation of Computing Systems." IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics SMC-12, no. 2 (March/April, 1982): 107-16.

The relationship between the metaphor and the source must be natural (112)

Carroll, John M., and John C. Thomas. "Metaphor and the Cognitive Representation of Computing Systems." IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics SMC-12, no. 2 (March/April, 1982): 107-16.

It's hard to get that idea across to him...I gave you that idea....Your reasons came through to us...Try to pack more thought into fewer words...The idea is buried in terribly dense paragraphs (11).

Lakoff, George, and Mark Johnson. "Concepts We Live By." 1980, 3-52.

There are many possible physical and social bases for metaphor. Coherence within the overall system seems to be part of the reason why one is chosen and not the other. Happy is up...good is up...healthy is up (18).

Lakoff, George, and Mark Johnson. "Concepts We Live By." 1980, 3-52.

The judge clapped him in jail. MET some emotion...The judge put him in jail. LIT no emotion (31)

For instance when we say "He shot down all of my arguments", we project knowledge and inferences from (the source domain) onto our reasoning about arguments and debates (the target domain).

How do you do (118). Jakobson, Roman. "Two Aspects of Language and Two Types of Aphasic Disturbances." The Function and Structure of Language: 115-33.

The belief that to know the name of a thing is to get a hold on iot is thus empirically true (1965b:233) (186).

Every metaphor or symbol contains both truth and fiction: if it is taken literally it misrepresents, but it is more than a conventional sign because it highlights a resemblance. The metaphor is a mode of reflection and enables abstract thought on the basis of analogical predication (189).

Works Cited Metaphor II

Apple Human Interface Guidelines: The Apple Desktop Interface. (1987). Reading, Massachusetts. Menlo Park, California. New York: Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Inc., pp.3,10,20,22-23.

Arendt, Hannah. "The Life of the Mind." Language and Metaphor and Metaphor and the Ineffable, 1975, 98-1.

Carroll, John M., and John C. Thomas. "Metaphor and the Cognitive Representation of Computing Systems." IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics SMC-12, no. 2 (March/April, 1982): 107-16.

Jakobson, Roman. "Two Aspects of Language and Two Types of Aphasic Disturbances." The Function and Structure of Language: 115-33.

Lakoff, George, and Mark Johnson. "Concepts We Live By." 1980, 3-52.

Lakoff, George. "The Death of Dead Metaphor." Metaphor and Symbolic Activity, 2(2), 1987, 143-47. Department of Linguistics University of California