You can find the lowest 8 bits of the child's exit value (the return value of main() or value included in exit()): Use the "Wait macros" - typically you will use "WIFEXITED" and "WEXITSTATUS" . See wait/waitpid man page for more information).

int status;
pid_t child = fork();
if (child == -1) return 1; // Failed
if (child > 0) { /* I am the parent - wait for the child to finish */
    pid_t pid = waitpid(child, &status, 0);
    if (pid != -1 && WIFEXITED(status)) {
        int low8bits = WEXITSTATUS(status);
        printf("Process %d returned %d" , pid, low8bits);
    }
} else { /* I am the child */
    // do something interesting
    execl("/bin/ls", "/bin/ls", ".", (char *) NULL); // "ls ."
}

A process can only have 256 return values, the rest of the bits are informational.

Note there is no need to memorize this, this is just a high level overview of how information is stored inside the status variables

From Android source code:

/* If WIFEXITED(STATUS), the low-order 8 bits of the status. */

#define __WEXITSTATUS(status) (((status) & 0xff00) >> 8)

/* If WIFSIGNALED(STATUS), the terminating signal. */

#define __WTERMSIG(status) ((status) & 0x7f)

/* If WIFSTOPPED(STATUS), the signal that stopped the child. */

#define __WSTOPSIG(status) __WEXITSTATUS(status)

/* Nonzero if STATUS indicates normal termination. */

#define __WIFEXITED(status) (__WTERMSIG(status) == 0)

The kernel has an internal way of keeping track of signaled, exited, or stopped. That API is abstracted so that that the kernel developers are free to change at will.

Remember that the the macros only make sense if the precondition is met. Meaning that a process' exit status won't be defined if the process is signaled. The macros will not do the checking for you, so it's up to the programming to make sure the logic checks out.

A signal is a construct provided to us by the kernel. It allows one process to asynchronously send a signal (think a message) to another process. If that process wants to accept the signal, it can, and then, for most signals, can decide what to do with that signal. Here is a short list (non comprehensive) of signals.

• When the user sends a signal. For example, you are at the terminal, and you send CTRL-C
• When a system event happens. For example, you get a SIGCHILD after forking to notice when one of your children have exited.
• When another program sends it. For example, when you execute kill -9 PID, it sends SIGKILL
• When an appropriate hardware interrupt is triggered. For example, if you access a page that you aren't supposed to, the hardware generates a segfault interrupt which gets intercepted by the kernel. The kernel finds the process that caused this and sends a software interrupt signal SIGSEGV.

Yes ! You can temporarily pause a running process by sending it a SIGSTOP signal. If it succeeds it will freeze a process; i.e. the process will not be allocated any more CPU time.

To allow a process to resume execution send it the SIGCONT signal.

For example, Here's program that slowly prints a dot every second, up to 59 dots.

#include <unistd.h>
#include <stdio.h>
int main() {
    printf("My pid is %d\n", getpid());
    int i = 60;
    while (--i) { 
        write(1, ".", 1);
        sleep(1);
    }
    write(1, "Done!", 5);
    return 0;
}

We will first start the process in the background (notice the & at the end). Then send it a signal from the shell process by using the kill command.

>./program &
My pid is 403
...
>kill -SIGSTOP 403
>kill -SIGCONT 403

In C, send a signal to the child using kill POSIX call,

kill(child, SIGUSR1); // Send a user-defined signal
kill(child, SIGSTOP); // Stop the child process (the child cannot prevent this)
kill(child, SIGTERM); // Terminate the child process (the child can prevent this)
kill(child, SIGINT); // Equivalent to CTRL-C (by default closes the process)

As we saw above there is also a kill command available in the shell e.g. get a list of running processes and then terminate process 45 and process 46

ps
kill -l 
kill -9 45
kill -s TERM 46

We will return to signals later on - this is just a short introduction. On a Linux system, see man -s7 signal if you are interested in finding out more (for example a list of system and library calls that are async-signal-safe).

There are strict limitations on the executable code inside a signal handler. Most library and system calls are not 'async-signal-safe' - they may not be used inside a signal handler because they are not re-entrant safe. In a single-threaded program, signal handling momentarily interrupts the program execution to execute the signal handler code instead. Suppose your original program was interrupted while executing the library code of malloc ; the memory structures used by malloc will not be in a consistent state. Calling printf (which uses malloc) as part of the signal handler is unsafe and will result in "undefined behavior" i.e. it is no longer a useful,predictable program. In practice your program might crash, compute or generate incorrect results or stop functioning ("deadlock"), depending on exactly what your program was executing when it was interrupted to execute the signal handler code.

One common use of signal handlers is to set a boolean flag that is occasionally polled (read) as part of the normal running of the program. For example,

int pleaseStop; // See notes on why "volatile sig_atomic_t" is better

void handle_sigint(int signal) {
    pleaseStop = 1;
}

int main() {
    signal(SIGINT, handle_sigint);
    pleaseStop = 0;
    while (! pleaseStop) { 
        /* application logic here */ 
    }
    /* cleanup code here */
}

The above code might appear to be correct on paper. However, we need to provide a hint to the compiler and to the CPU core that will execute the main() loop. We need to prevent a compiler optimization: The expression ! pleaseStop appears to be a loop invariant i.e. true forever, so can be simplified to true. Secondly, we need to ensure that the value of pleaseStop is not cached using a CPU register and instead always read from and written to main memory. The sig_atomic_t type implies that all the bits of the variable can be read or modified as an "atomic operation" - a single uninterruptable operation. It is impossible to read a value that is composed of some new bit values and old bit values.

By specifying pleaseStop with the correct type volatile sig_atomic_t we can write portable code where the main loop will be exited after the signal handler returns. The sig_atomic_t type can be as large as an int on most modern platforms but on embedded systems can be as small as a char and only able to represent (-127 to 127) values.

volatile sig_atomic_t pleaseStop;

Two examples of this pattern can be found in "COMP" a terminal based 1Hz 4bit computer (https://github.com/gto76/comp-cpp/blob/1bf9a77eaf8f57f7358a316e5bbada97f2dc8987/src/output.c#L121). Two boolean flags are used. One to mark the delivery of SIGINT (CTRL-C), and gracefully shutdown the program, and the other to mark SIGWINCH signal to detect terminal resize and redraw the entire display.